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Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutrición

versión impresa ISSN 0004-0622

ALAN vol.67 no.1 Caracas mar. 2017

 

Evaluación nutricional de la papa de aire (Dioscorea bulbifera L.) cultivada en Panamá

Manuel Jiménez Montero y Sergio Sánchez Silvera

Fundación Toabré, Panamá.

RESUMEN. El objetivo del presente estudio fue el de conocer la composición nutricional de los tubérculos de la papa de aire (Dioscorea bulbifera L.) especie subutilizada en la agricultura campesina panameña. Se seleccionaron 18 muestras obtenidas de parcelas de prueba ubicadas en comunidades campesinas del distrito de Donoso, provincia de Colón, en Panamá, durante los años 2012 y 2013. A las muestras seleccionadas se les determinó humedad, proteínas, azúcares, almidón, lípidos, cenizas y contenido energético. En el segundo año se incluyó el análisis de vitamina C, compuestos fenólicos y actividad antioxidante. No se encontraron diferencias significativas de los valores entre comunidades, tipo de parcela y año de cultivo, lo cual evidencia una alta estabilidad de estos valores nutricionales en las condiciones del trópico muy húmedo de Panamá. Los resultados obtenidos presentan un contenido nutricional similar al de otros tubérculos utilizados en la dieta campesina de Panamá. Los valores de actividad antioxidante y contenido de compuestos fenólicos encontrados le confieren características de alimento funcional.

Palabras clave: Cultivo subutilizado, alimento funcional, antioxidante, Panamá.

SUMMARY. Nutritional evaluation of air potato (Dioscorea bulbifera L.) grown in Panamá. The goal of this study was to determine the nutritional composition of air potato (Dioscorea bulbifera L.) tubers, underutilized specie in the Panamanian peasant agriculture. The samples were obtained from test plots located in rural communities in the district of Donoso, Province of Colon in Panama, during the years 2012 and 2013. Contents of moisture, protein, sugars, starch, lipids, ashes and energetic were determined to the 18 selected samples. In the second year were included analysis of vitamin C, phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity. No significant differences of the values between communities, type of land and crop year were found, which suggest high stability of these nutritional values of air potato, in the very humid tropics conditions of Panama. The results show that the air potato tubers have a nutritional value similar to other tubers used in the peasant diet of Panama. The levels of antioxidant activity and phenolic content found, give D. bulbifera characteristics as a functional food.

Key words: Underutilized crop, functional food, antioxidant, Panama.

Recibido: 08-08-2016 Aceptado:  16-09-2016.

INTRODUCCIÓN

La papa de aire (Dioscorea bulbifera L.) es una especie perteneciente a la familia de los ñames (Dioscoreaceae), que ha sido utilizada en la alimentación humana en Asia, áfrica, Australia y América (1), principalmente por la población campesina e indígena de escasos recursos. Este nombre, y otros tales como ñame volador o papa voladora, hacen alusión a los tubérculos comestibles que produce, los cuales se originan en el tallo en las axilas de las hojas, y no en el suelo, como el resto de sus congéneres (Figura 1).

Estudios recientes (2) señalan que la papa de aire es un cultivo de vieja presencia en las parcelas campesinas panameñas, pero con un nivel relativamente bajo de cultivo y consumo, lo cual lo ubica en el rango de cultivo subutilizado.  En esa perspectiva, uno de los  factores que limita su consumo es que no se tiene un conocimiento preciso de los aportes nutricionales que esta especie proporciona al ser humano, en las condiciones del medio rural panameño.

El presente estudio se sustenta en la hipótesis de que la papa de aire posee las cualidades nutricionales para convertirse en un importante fitorecurso para la alimentación humana en Panamá. Se plantea como objetivo conocer la composición química de la papa de aire (D. bulbifera) en las condiciones del trópico húmedo muy lluvioso de Donoso, Colón, destacando los aspectos relevantes para su promoción como cultivo alimenticio en la región.
 
MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS

Las muestras se obtuvieron en parcelas de prueba establecidas durante dos años consecutivos (2012 y 2013) en los terrenos de agricultores campesinos, y bajo su manejo y supervisión, en el distrito de Donoso en la provincia de Colón, República de Panamá. En dicha experiencia se seleccionaron seis comunidades (El Jobo, Dominical, Belorizal, San Luis, Concepción y Guasimo), y en cada una se establecieron tres (3) parcelas con 25 plantas cada una, para un total de 18 parcelas, con tres variantes de distancia de siembra entre plantas.

La cosecha de las parcelas se realizó en el mes de noviembre, siete meses después de la siembra. La primera se realizó entre el 10 y el 25 de noviembre de 2012 y la segunda entre el 9 y 24 de noviembre de 2013. En ambos casos se realizó la colecta total de los tubérculos de cada parcela, una por una. Las muestras se obtuvieron a partir de los tubérculos medianos (diámetro entre 5 y 10 centímetros), tomando 6 tubérculos al azar de ese grupo en cada parcela. Las mismas fue- ron llevadas al Laboratorio de Bioquímica de Alimentos y Nutrición de la Universidad de Panamá a fines del mes de noviembre de cada año, obteniendo los resultados en febrero de 2013 y mayo de 2014, respectivamente. El análisis químico proximal incluyó humedad, cenizas, lípidos, azúcares totales, almidón y proteína.

De cada muestra se tomaron 120 g de la porción comestible, las cuales fueron deshidratadas en un horno a 105°C durante 16 horas. Esta porción seca fue transformada en un fino polvo, por homogenización utilizado un molino de cuchilla Black & Decker y se colocaron en envases herméticos para minimizar la rehidratación. Para la determinación de humedad, cenizas, lípidos, almidón y proteína cruda, se utilizaron los procedimientos analíticos recomendados por el AOAC (3) y los azúcares totales se analizaron según Osborne y Voogt (4).

En el segundo año (2013) se realizaron tres determinaciones adicionales: vitamina C, fenoles totales y actividad antioxidante, en porciones cruda y cocida de seis muestras de tubérculos, una por comunidad. La actividad antioxidante se determinó por el método ba- sado en la reducción de la solución metanólica de 2,2- difenilpicrilhidrazilo (DPPH) descrito por Lamaison et al (5). El contenido de vitamina C se determinó se determinó por titulación, utilizando 2,6-ciclorofenolindo- fenol (3). Los compuestos fenólicos se determinaron utilizando el reactivo de Folin-Ciocalteu con el método descrito por Singleton y Rossi (6). La porción cruda se procesó fresca y la porción cocida se obtuvo de tubérculos cocidos en agua durante 15 minutos, sin ningún tipo de adición.

Los resultados obtenidos se procesaron con el paquete estadístico STATISTICA 7. Este procesamiento incluyó el análisis exploratorio, estadísticas básicas, análisis de varianza y prueba de medias.

Figura 1. Tubérculos de papa de aire (Dioscorea bulbifera L.).



RESULTADOS

En relación al contenido nutricional se obtuvo como valores promedio de los dos años de cultivo (en g/100 g) una humedad de 72.7, cenizas 1.12, lípidos 0.23, proteína 1.25, azúcares 0.14, almidón 23.8 y un contenido energético de 103.3 Kcal/100 g  (Tabla 1).

No se encontró diferencias significativas de los valores entre comunidades, tipo de parcela y año de cultivo, lo cual da cuenta de una alta estabilidad de la composición química de la papa de aire en las condiciones del trópico muy húmedo de Panamá.

En cuanto a los análisis incorporados en la segunda cosecha se obtuvieron resultados que abren nuevas perspectivas al estudio de D. bulbifera en Panamá. Como se observa en la Tabla 2  los valores de vitamina C encontrados, con una media  de 7.30 mg/ 100 g de peso fresco, se ubican en un rango relativamente bajo, lo cual es típico para este tipo de producto. No obstante, al evaluarse la actividad antioxidante en los tubérculos, se obtuvo resultados que indican valores comparativamente  altos  para  un  producto  farináceo.   Dicha actividad parece responder al contenido de compuestos fenólicos, que también se ubica en un rango alto, con una Concentración de Inhibición media (CI50) de 189.9 mg equivalentes de ácido gálico/100 g (Tabla 2).

De la comparación de estos valores para muestra cruda y cocida, se encontró que la cocción de los tubérculos no parece afectar de manera importante este contenido, ya que si bien se aprecia una leve disminución, no produce cambios significativos y se puede considerar despreciable.

TABLA 1. Contenido nutricional de tubérculos de papa de aire, en base húmeda.



TABLA 2. Vitamina C, compuestos fenólicos y actividad antioxidante en tubérculos de papa de aire de Donoso, Panamá, Año 2013.

   

 DISCUSIÓN

Los valores encontrados corresponden a un tubérculo típico, es decir, con alto contenido de almidón y contenido energético y bajo contenido de azúcares, lípidos y proteínas, similar a otros tubérculos del mismo género consumidos por la población campesina e indígena de Panamá, como el ñame (Dioscorea alata) y el ñampí (Dioscorea trífida), de acuerdo con la Tabla de Composición de Alimentos de Centroamérica (7). De igual forma se reportan valores similares de carbohidratos, lípidos y aporte calóricos en tubérculos del mismo género (D. alata y D.cayanensis) en Brasil (8).

Al comparar los valores nutricionales encontrados en este estudio con los reportados a nivel internacional para D. bulbifera en base húmeda, se observó que la mayor similitud se dio con los valores reportados por la FAO para una muestra de Australia (9). Sin embargo, en la mayoría de los casos los valores encontrados difieren de manera destacable. Los valores de proteína y cenizas fueron inferiores a los de Libra et al (10) en Costa de Marfil, a los encontrados en Himalaya por Chandra et al (11), a los reportados por la Tabla de composición de alimentos de áfrica Occidental (12), y Sanful et al (13) en Ghana. Lo común en todos los casos es que el contenido de agua de los tubérculos de papa de aire del presente estudio fue superior a todos en una media del 10%, lo cual señala que en las condiciones de Panamá los tubérculos tienden a acumular más agua, en detrimento de los otros componentes nutricionales y corrobora lo señalado por Badui (14) de que la composición final de un alimento vegetal depende de muchos factores, tales como la variedad de la semilla, el tipo de suelo, la temperatura ambiental, entre otros; es decir, responde a factores genéticos, climáticos y ecológicos. No obstante esta variación, la composición nutricional de la papa de aire puede considerarse adecuada para el consumo de la población.

En lo relativo al contenido de vitamina C, valores similares fueron también reportados para papa de aire por Peña y Ruiz en Tabasco, México (15) y en Brasil (8) se observó similitud de su contenido con especies del mismo género (D. alata y D.cayanensis).

El aporte singular de estos tubérculos viene dado por los altos niveles de actividad antioxidante, que se correlacionan positivamente con el contenido de compuestos fenólicos hallados, los cuales además se encuentran en un rango comparable al de hortalizas de raíz y fruto (16). Según Quintanar y Calderón (17) la actividad antioxidante incluye diversos mecanismos con los cuales los organismos aerobios enfrentan el deterioro celular, provocado principalmente por los radicales libres. Un mecanismo lo constituyen los antioxidantes exógenos, tales como la vitamina C y los polifenoles. El contenido de estos últimos parece ser la causa principal de la actividad antioxidante en el contenido de los tubérculos de D. bulbifera. Resultados similares fueron reportados por Ghosh et al (18) quienes señalan que D. bulbifera contiene cantidades significativas de fitoquímicos con propiedades antioxidantes que pueden ser explotadas como fuente potencial para reducir el estrés oxidativo inducido por enfermedades.

Estudios recientes han demostrado que muchos constituyentes  polifenólicos  dietéticos  derivados de plantas son antioxidantes más eficaces in vitro que las vitaminas E o C, y por lo tanto pueden contribuir significativamente a los efectos protectores in vivo (19). Esto ha motivado un creciente interés en la investigación sobre el papel de los antioxidantes de origen vegetal en la alimentación y la salud humana. La influencia beneficiosa de muchos productos alimenticios y bebidas en la salud humana ha sido reconocido recientemente que proceden de su actividad antioxidante (20). Estudios recientes con D. bulbifera reportan también esta actividad antioxidante, como muestran los estudios desarrollados por Ghosh et al (21) y Mariyan (22).

Por otro lado, la correlación entre actividad antioxidante y compuestos fenólicos es ampliamente comprobable en otros productos de origen vegetal (23) y se ha encontrado no solo su relación lineal positiva y significativa, sino también que los compuestos fenólicos fueron los componentes antioxidantes dominantes (24), con independencia del método analítico utilizado (25). En un estudio con 56 plantas en China, Son et   al (26) encontraron también una alta correlación positiva entre la capacidad antioxidante y el contenido de fenoles totales, lo que a su entender indica que los compuestos fenólicos son un importante contribuyente de la actividad antioxidante de estas plantas. Sus resultados señalan que Dioscorea bulbifera mostró los valores mayores en ambas variables, por lo que podría ser una potencial fuente rica en antioxidantes naturales.

Otro factor a considerar al evaluar estas variables nutricionales lo constituye el efecto de la cocción en ellas. Según Marquina et al (27) la cocción de los vegetales y frutas causa la reducción de su actividad antioxidante y su concentración de polifenoles. Trabajando con D. bulbifera y D. dometorum en Nigeria, Ogbuagu (28) también encontró una disminución de valores luego de la cocción. Sin embargo, Tarwadi (16) anota que a pesar de las pérdidas por cocción la asociación entre valores seguía siendo fuerte.

Shajeela et al (29) reportaron que entre diversas especies de Dioscorea, los tubérculos de D. bulbifera presentaron los mayores contenidos de compuestos fenólicos libres, agregando que estos son compuestos solubles en agua, y como tales, pueden ser eliminados por inmersión seguida por la cocción. Sin embargo, el resultado del presente estudio no coincide con este planteamiento, toda vez que el contenido de compuestos fenólicos no varió significativamente en la muestra cocida, lo cual indica que los componentes responsables de la actividad antioxidante en la papa de aire producidos en Donoso, son estables a las condiciones de cocción.
 
CONCLUSIONES

Este estudio permite un primer acercamiento al conocimiento de la composición química y calidad nutricional de los tubérculos de papa de aire en las condiciones del trópico muy húmedo de Panamá. Las muestras analizadas dan cuenta de valores correspondiente a un tubérculo típico, es decir, con alto contenido de almidón y contenido energético y bajo contenido de azucares, lípidos y proteínas, similar a otros como el de ñame, malanga o yuca, con lo cual se considera que su consumo es adecuado para la población. El contenido de compuestos fenólicos y actividad antioxidante que presentan los tubérculos de papa de aire es alto para rizomas y farináceas y lo ubica en el rango de los alimentos funcionales. Los resultados orientan en la necesidad de fortalecer la promoción del cultivo y consumo de la papa de aire y realizar nuevos estudios para profundizar en el conocimiento de sus propiedades nutracéuticas.
 
AGRADECIMIENTOS

A la Secretaría Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación de Panamá (SENACYT) por el financia- miento otorgado para la realización de esta investigación. A los agricultores y comunidades campesinas del distrito de Donoso, quienes colaboraron de manera directa y entusiasta en las actividades de campo.
 
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 Composición nutricional, compuestos fenólicos y capacidad antioxidante de cascarilla de garbanzo (Cicer arietinum)

Guillermo Niño Medina, Dolores Muy Rangel, Aurora de Jesús Garza Juárez, Jesús Alberto Vázquez-Rodríguez, Gerardo Méndez Zamora, Vania Urías Orona


Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Facultad de Agronomía, Nuevo León, México. Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo (CIAD), Culiacán, Sinaloa, México.

Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Facultad de Salud Pública y Nutrición. Monterrey, Nuevo León, México.

RESUMEN. La composición química, minerales, azúcares neutros, compuestos fenólicos y capacidad antioxidante fueron analizados en la cascarilla de garbanzo. La cascarilla de garbanzo presentó 72% de fibra dietaria, del cual el 24.4% fue celulosa. Los compuestos fenólicos y actividad antioxidante de la cascarilla de garbanzo fueron evidentes, predominando los taninos condensados totales con 13.28 mgEC/g, donde la fracción soluble fue mayor respecto a la fracción ligada. El contenido de proteína y grasa fue de 4.5 y 0.4%. En conclusión, la cascarilla de garbanzo tiene propiedades nutricionales y funcionales que pueden ser consideradas en el diseño de nuevos productos alimenticios para mejorar la salud de los consumidores.

Palabras clave: Composición química, fibra dietaria, azúcares neutros, compuestos fenólicos, actividad antioxidante, Cicer arietinum.

SUMMARY. Nutritional composition, phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) husk. The chemical composition, minerals, neutral sugars, phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity were analyzed in the chickpea husk. Chickpea husk presented 72% of dietary fiber of which 24.4% was cellulose. The content of phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity of chickpea husk was evident, predominating condensed tannins with a total content of 13.28 mgECat/g, of which soluble fraction was the higher than bound fraction. The content of protein and fat was 4.5 and 0.4 %, respectively. In conclusion, chick pea husk has nutritional and functional properties that can be considered in the design of new food products to improve the health of consumers.

Key words: Chemical composition, dietary fiber, neutral sugars, phenolic compounds, antioxidant capacity, Cicer arietinum.

Recibido: 26-07-2016  Aceptado:   09-10-2016.

INTRODUCCIÓN

El consumo de leguminosas es importante, sus granos o semillas tienen más proteínas que los cereales, alto porcentaje fibra dietaria, minerales y almidón (1); además poseen efectos fisiológicos benéficos en la prevención de la diabetes, problemas de obesidad, enfermedades cardiovasculares y cáncer de colon (2). La cascarilla, pericarpio o cubierta de las leguminosas normalmente son destinadas como alimento para ganado después del procesamiento del grano. Son un material de desecho de algunas industrias alimentarias como la aceitera y harinera, representan un subproducto del 20% del total de la leguminosa procesada (3). Este tipo de industrias generan residuos con potencial antioxidante, antimicrobiano, así como compuestos bioactivos, tal es el caso de la cascarilla de garbanzo. Además de ser un sub producto de bajo costo, la cascarilla de garbanzo posee un alto contenido de fibra dietaria y polifenoles. La fibra dietaria, se constituye de celulosa, hemicelulosa, pectina, lignina, gomas y su consumo trae consigo beneficios al organismo humano como la disminución del colesterol, lipoproteínas de baja densidad (LDL), problemas del tracto digestivo e incidencia de cáncer de colon (4). Por su parte, los compuestos fenó- licos son metabolitos secundarios esenciales para el desarrollo y crecimiento de las plantas, usados como mecanismo de defensa. Los polifenoles (flavonoides, taninos, ácidos fenólicos) desde el punto vista nutricional tienen un alto impacto por su actividad antioxidante (5). Los antioxidantes reducen el estrés oxidativo y participan en la prevención de enfermedades degenerativas como el cáncer y padecimientos cardiovasculares, poseen propiedades antiinflamatorias, y su efectividad depende de la cantidad consumida y su biodisponibilidad (6). El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar la composición química, minerales, azúcares neutros, compuestos fenólicos y capacidad antioxidante de la cascarilla de garbanzo.

MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS

Obtención de la cascarilla de garbanzo

Grano de garbanzo tipo Kabuli Variedad
ʽJumboʼ de coloración crema fue donado por la Unión Nacional de Productores y Exportadores de Garbanzo (UNPEG, Culiacán, Sinaloa, México). Dos muestras de 6.25 kg con dos replicas (n=4) se utilizaron para la caracterización. El grano fue humedecido en agua a 40°C durante 2 h, posteriormente la cascarilla del grano fue separada manualmente y secada durante la noche a 45°C. Finalmente, la cascarilla fue molida y tamizada a tamaño de partícula de 420 μm (malla 40), obteniendo un rendimiento de 3.5 %.
 
Análisis proximal y minerales
 
El análisis proximal y de minerales fue realizado de acuerdo a las metodologías oficiales de la AOAC (7): humedad (método 925.09), grasa (Soxhlet, método 923.03), fibra cruda (método 920.86), proteínas (micro Kjeldahl, método 960.52) y cenizas (método 923.03); el contenido de carbohidratos fue estimado por diferencia y los carbohidratos totales fueron obtenidos por diferencia más el contenido de fibra cruda. El contenido de fibra dietaria total (FDT) fue determinado basado en el método 985.29, utilizando el kit de fibra dietaria Megazyme®. En la determinación de minerales (método 955.06), las muestras fueron sometidas a una digestión ácida (HCl) y posteriormente se determinó el contenido de minerales en un espectrómetro de absorción atómica SpectrAA-220 (Varian). Los elementos de K y Na se analizaron por emisión de flama a 589.6 y 769.9 nm, respetivamente. El contenido de Ca, Mg, Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn se determinó por absorción atómica a 422.7, 285.2, 213.9, 324.7, 248.3 y   279.5nm, respectivamente.
 
Azúcares neutros (AN)
 
La determinación de AN fueron realizados por cromatografía de gases; 3 mg de cascarilla fueron tratados con 500 μL de ácido trifluoroacético 2N durante 1 h a 120°C, utilizando 200 μg de mio-inositol como estándar interno. Enseguida la muestra fue centrifugada, el sobrenadante recuperado, tratado con 150 μL de NaBH4 (20 mg/mL en NH4OH 1N) y posteriormente fue llevada a cabo la acetilación con 200 μL de anhídrido acético y 20 μL de 1-metilimidazol como catalizador; 2 mL de agua y 3 mL de cloroformo fueron agregados al material derivatizado y la fase clorofórmica fue recuperada y evaporada, así los acetatos  de alditol fueron resuspendidos en acetona para su inyección en un cromatógrafo de gases Varian CP-3800 con detector FID (250°C), con columna capilar DB-23 de 30 m x 0.25 mm (210°C) y helio como gas acarreador a flujo constante de 3 mL/min. La integración de áreas fue hecho con el software MS Workstation versión 6.5 (SP1) (Varian Inc.), y los cálculos fueron realizados a partir de curvas estándares de ramnosa, fucosa, arabinosa, xilosa, manosa, galactosa y glucosa.
 
Celulosa
 
El pellet resultante del análisis de azúcares neutros se hidrolizó durante 5 h con H2SO4 concentrado y el contenido de azúcares totales se determinó por el método de antrona propuesto por Yemm y Willis (8); 100 μL del extracto se tomaron, adicionándoles 400 µL de agua destilada y 1000 μL de antrona al 0.2% en H2SO4 concentrado, se calentó en baño húmedo a 80°C por 10 min, posteriormente se enfrió en hielo y finalmente se tomó la lectura de las muestras a 620 nm en un espec- trofotómetro Cary 60 UV-Vis (Agilent Technologies). La determinación del contenido de celulosa se basó en una curva de calibración con glucosa y los resultados se expresaron en porcentaje.
 
Extracción de fenólicos libres y ligados
 
La extracción de fenólicos libres y ligados fue realizada de acuerdo al método de Urías-Orona et al. (9) con modificaciones. En la extracción de fenólicos libres se tomaron 100 mg de cascarilla de garbanzo y fueron suspendidos en 5 mL de metanol al 80%, enseguida la muestra fue tratada con flujo de argón durante 30 s y agitada a 200 rpm por 2 h. La muestra fue  centrifugada a 4650 g, el sobrenadante fue recuperado y almacenado a -20°C hasta su análisis para fenólicos y capacidad antioxidante. En la extracción de fenólicos ligados, el pellet recuperado de la obtención de fenólicos libres fue tratado con 5 mL de NaOH 2M, flujo de argón por 30 s y agitado a 200 rpm por 4 h. Enseguida, el pH fue ajustado a 2.5 con HCl concentrado y centrifugado a 4650 g. El sobrenadante fue recuperado y se agregaron 5 mL de acetato de etilo en dos ocasiones. Los extractos de acetato de etilo fueron combinados y evaporados a 40°C con flujo de argón y almacenados a -20 °C. Al momento del análisis el extracto fue resuspendido en 3 mL de metanol al 80%.

Compuestos fenólicos y capacidad antioxidante Los ensayos de compuestos fenólicos y capacidad antioxidante fueron realizados de acuerdo a López Contreras et al. (10). La determinación del contenido de fenoles totales (FN) fue llevada a cabo utilizando el reactivo Folin-Ciocalteu, usando ácido clorogénico como estándar (0 a 200 mg/L) y el resultado fue expresado como miligramos equivalentes de ácido clorogénico por gramo de muestra (mgEAC/g). El contenido de flavonoides totales (FL) fue determinado con base al ensayo del cloruro de aluminio utilizando catequina como estándar (0 a 200 mg/L), y el resultado fue expresado como miligramos equivalentes de catequina por gramo de muestra (mgECat/g). El contenido de taninos condensados (TC) fue determinado con base en la prueba vainillina-HCl utilizando catequina como estándar (0 a 200 mg/L) y el resultado fue expresado como miligramos equivalentes de catequina por gramo de muestra (mgECat/g). La capacidad antioxidante fue evaluada con base en la reducción de absorbancia de los radicales 2,2-Difenyl-1-picrylhydrazilo (DPPH) y ácido 2,2-azino-bis(3-etilbenzotiazolin)-6-sulfónico (ABTS), utilizando Trolox como estándar (0 a 800 μmol/g) y expresados como micromoles equivalentes de Trolox por gramo de muestra (μmolET/g).
 
Análisis de datos

Los datos fueron expresados como media ± desviación estándar (yi = µ ± εi,n=4), obtenidos de los resultados de la estadística descriptiva para cada variable
evaluada; el software Minitab14.0 (Minitab, 2004) fue usado para estas determinaciones.

RESULTADOS

Análisis proximal

El contenido de humedad, cenizas, proteínas, grasa, carbohidratos, minerales y azúcares neutros se muestra en la Tabla 1. Los carbohidratos representaron el mayor contenido en la cascarilla de garbanzo, seguidos por proteína, humedad, cenizas y grasas. El contenido de fibra dietaria total fue de 78.8% siendo el principal componente polisacáridos no celulósicos (54.4%) seguido por la celulosa (24.4%).

El contenido de minerales encontrado en el presente estudio mostró en mayor proporción fue Ca, seguido por K y Mg (Tabla 2) con niveles de 9316, 7699 y 2799 ppm, respectivamente, mientras que Fe y Zn minerales esenciales en la nutrición humana con se encontraron en concentraciones de 83 y 29 ppm, respectivamente.

La Tabla 2 muestra la composición de azúcares neutros en la cascarilla de garbanzo, siendo los mayoritarios arabinosa (26.83%), galactosa (25.48%) y glucosa
(20.38%), seguidos por ramnosa (10.56%), xilosa (9.25%) y manosa (6.85%), mientras que el azúcar de menor concentración fue fucosa (0.64%).

Compuestos fenólicos y capacidad antioxidante

En la Tabla 3, se observa el contenido de compuestos fenólicos de la cascarilla de garbanzo. En fenoles totales las fracción libre presentó 1.50 mgEAC/g, mientras que el contenido de la fracción ligada fue de 0.11 mgEAC/g. En flavonoides totales el contenido de la fracción ligada y libre fue con 0.94 y 0.42 mgECat/g, respectivamente. En el contenido de taninos condensados la fracción libre y ligada arrojaron valores de 7.38 y 5.90 mgEAC/g, por lo que predomina la presencia de este grupo fenólico en la cascarilla de garbanzo.  En  cuanto  a  la  capacidad  antioxidante, la cascarilla de garbanzo presentó niveles de 2.81 y 2.35 μmolET/g en la fracción libre y ligada, respectivamente en el método DPPH, mientras que por el método ABTS la capacidad antioxidante fue mayor, observando que la fracción libre fue mayor a la ligada con 12.97 y 6.52 µmolET/g, respectivamente.

TABLA 1. Composición química de cascarilla de garbanzo (g/100g).

/img/fbpe/alan/v67n1/art10fig1.jpg
             

TABLA 2. Composición de azúcares neutros y minerales de cascarilla de garbanzo.

/img/fbpe/alan/v67n1/art10fig2.jpg

TABLA 3. Contenido total de compuestos fenólicos y capacidad antioxidante de cascarilla de garbanzo (Fracción Libre + Fracción Ligada).

/img/fbpe/alan/v67n1/art10fig3.jpg           

 
DISCUSIÓN

Bose y Shams-Ud-Din (11) reportaron para cascarilla de garbanzo Bengal gram un contenido de 5.25 de proteína, 4.79 grasa y 4.79 ceniza (g/100g), donde la ceniza mostró una diferencia de 3.49 g con respecto a la obtenida en este estudio. La fibra dietaria total es uno de los componentes más importantes en las legumino- sas y se clasifica en fracciones soluble e insoluble, incluyendo la primera gomas, mucilagos, pectinas y algunas hemicelulosas, mientras que la segunda se compone de celulosa, lignina, y el resto de las hemicelulosas son parte de la fracción insoluble. Khan et al. (12) reportaron contenidos de 22% de fibra dietaria total, 6.5% de celulosa y 2.7% de pectina para grano de garbanzo sin cascarilla, observándose una gran diferencia con el presente estudio, ya que la cascarilla del grano se constituye principalmente de estos componentes. Bose y Shams-Ud-Din (11) utilizaron cascarilla de garbanzo a diferentes concentraciones en la formulación de galletas tipo cracker biscuits y observaron un incremento del 2.58% en el contenido de fibra cruda. Los carbohidratos son una fuente nutritiva importante y son clasificados en monosacáridos, oligosacáridos y polisacáridos; Wood y Grusak (13) reportaron un contenido de carbohidratos en grano entero de garbanzo tipo Desi de 51-65%, mientras que para el tipo Kabuli el 54-71%.

Las leguminosas son una fuente importante de minerales indispensables para el organismo humano, dentro de los principales en la nutrición humana están el Ca, Fe y Zn. Sandberg (14) evaluó el contenido de minerales en grano entero de garbanzo y reportó valores de 69, 35, 1240, y 1550 ppm para Fe, Zn, Ca y Mg, respectivamente, siendo los niveles de Fe y Zn cercanos a lo encontrado en el presente estudio, sin embargo sus niveles de Ca y Zn son inferiores a nuestros resultados. La biodisponibilidad de minerales en leguminosas está relacionado con el contenido de ácido fítico ya que este tiene un efecto negativo en su absorción. En este sentido, Wang et al. (15) reportó para garbanzo tipo Kabuli un contenido de 9.6 g/kg de ácido fítico el cual fue menor al compararlo con seis variedades de frijol con 12.2 g/kg en promedio, lo que sugiere que el garbanzo tiene mayor biodisponibilidad de minerales que el frijol, siendo este último la leguminosa la de mayor consumo en México.

Así mismo, en las leguminosas están presentes azúcares digeribles e indigeribles; en el grano entero de garbanzo han sido reportados azúcares libres (mono- sacáridos) como glucosa y galactosa en niveles de 700 y 50 mg/100g, respectivamente (16). En la determinación de los monosacáridos cuantificados para la cascarilla de garbanzo, arabinosa y galactosa se encuentran como componentes mayoritarios, lo que indica la presencia de arabino galactanos y ramnogalacturonanos los cuales son componentes de las pectinas (17).

Los compuestos fenólicos ligados se encuentran interaccionando con las hemicelulosas presentes en la fibra dietaria mediante un enlace tipo éster, lo cual explica su mayor contenido en las fracciones ligadas sometidas a condiciones de alcalinidad durante su extracción, ya que bajo estas condiciones se lleva a cabo la ruptura de este enlace (18). Segev et al. (19) reportaron en cascarilla de garbanzo tipo Kabuli un con- tenido de fenoles totales entre 0.2-1.1 mgECat/g, mientras que Kanatt et al. (3) reportaron en cascarilla de garbanzo Bengal gram, fenoles y flavonoides totales un contenido de 70 y 10 mgECat/g respetivamente; la diferencia observada con estos autores se debe al método de extracción empleado, así como a las características propias del grano, principalmente el color de la cascarilla. Diversos estudios han empleado diferentes técnicas como el descascarillado del grano, germinado, remojo y molienda con la finalidad de disminuir el tiempo de cocción, mejorar el sabor, la biodisponibilidad de minerales, proteínas y otros nutrientes, sin embargo cabe resaltar que esta acción afecta considerablemente la pérdida de los compuestos fenólicos presentes en este material vegetal (20). Los taninos son un grupo de polifenoles solubles en agua, forman complejos con polisacáridos y proteínas. Éstos se clasifican en taninos hidrolizables y taninos condesados (21). Han y Baik (22) reportaron para el grano de garbanzo una actividad antioxidante por ABTS en la fracción libre y ligada de 1.5 y 0.5 μmolET/g, respectivamente, los cuales están por debajo a lo obtenido en este estudio, con una diferencia del 11.47 y   6.02 mmolET/g. Ziu-Ul-Haq et al. (23) reportaron para garbanzo tipo Desi un contenido de fenoles totales, flavonoides totales y taninos condensados de 0.92-1.12, 0.79-0.99 y 0.58-0.69 mg/g, respectivamente, que fueron más bajos a lo reportado en este estudio, aunque la actividad antioxidante por DPPH y ABTS reportada por  estos  autores  fue  de  1.05-1.24  y  37.24-45.32 mmolTE/g, donde este último fue mayor a los obtenidos en este estudio.

CONCLUSIONES

La cascarilla de garbanzo tiene contenido de proteína considerable, un alto contenido de fibra dietaria total, además presenta contenidos elevados contenidos de Ca, K y Mg, así como de los azúcares arabinosa, galactosa, glucosa. Finalmente, también presenta contenidos elevados de compuestos fenólicos y altos niveles de capacidad antioxidante. Por estas características, la cascarilla de garbanzo puede considerarse con un buen valor nutritivo y funcional apto para mejorar la salud de los consumidores. También es posible considerar la cascarilla del garbanzo como una alternativa para potencializar la funcionalidad de otros alimentos.
 
AGRADECIMIENTOS

Al Programa de Apoyo a la Investigación Científica y Tecnológica (PAICYT) 2015 de la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León por el financiamiento otorgado. A Rosabel Vélez de la Rocha y Werner Rubio Carrasco, por la asistencia técnica brindada.
 
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^rND^sDe Almeida Costa^nGE^rND^sDa Silva Queiroz Monici^nK^rND^sPissini Machado^nReis SM^rND^sCosta de Oliveira^nA^rND^sCampos-Vega^nR^rND^sLoarca Piña^nG^rND^sOomah^nBD^rND^sKanatt^nSR^rND^sArjun^nK^rND^sSharma^nA^rND^sTharanathan^nRN^rND^sMahadevamma^nS^rND^sScalbert^nA^rND^sManach^nC^rND^sMorand^nC^rND^sRémésy^nC^rND^sJiménez^nL^rND^sManach^nC^rND^sScalbert^nA^rND^sMorand^nC^rND^sRémésy^nC^rND^sJiménez^nL^rND^sYemm^nEW^rND^sWillis^nAJ^rND^sUrias-Orona^nV^rND^sHeredia^nJB^rND^sMuy Rangel^nD^rND^sNiño Medina^nG^rND^sLópez-Contreras^nJJ^rND^sZavala García^nF^rND^sUrias Orona^nV^rND^sMartínez ávila^nGCG^rND^sRojas^nR^rND^sNiño-Medina^nG^rND^sBose^nD^rND^sShams-Ud-Din^nM^rND^sKhan^nAR^rND^sAlam^nS^rND^sAli^nS^rND^sBibi^nS^rND^sKhalil^nIA^rND^sSandberg^nAS^rND^sWang^nN^rND^sHatcher^rND^sTyler^nRT^rND^sToews^nR^rND^sGawalko^nEJ^rND^sSánchez-Mata^nMC^rND^sPeñuela-Teruel^nMJ^rND^sCámara Hurtado^nM^rND^sDíez Marqués^nC^rND^sTorija Isasa^nME^rND^sWillats^nWGT^rND^sKnox^nJP^rND^sMikkelsen^nJD^rND^sKroon^nPA^rND^sFaulds^nCB^rND^sRyden^nP^rND^sRobertson^nJA^rND^sWilliamson^nG^rND^sSegev^nA^rND^sBadani^nH^rND^sKapulnik^nY^rND^sShomer^nI^rND^sOren-Shamir^nM^rND^sGalili^nS^rND^sOghbaei^nM^rND^sPrakash^nJ^rND^sHan^nX^rND^sShen^nT^rND^sLou^nH^rND^sHan^nH^rND^sBaik^nBK^rND^sZia-Ul-Haq^nM^rND^sIqbal^nS^rND^sAhmad^nS^rND^sBhanger^nMI^rND^sWicz kowski^nW^rND^sAmarowicz^nR^rND^nSamuel^sDurán Agüero^rND^nGustavo^sCediel Giraldo^rND^nJerusa^sBrignardello Guerra^rND^nSamuel^sDurán Agüero^rND^nGustavo^sCediel Giraldo^rND^nJerusa^sBrignardello Guerra^rND^nSamuel^sDurán Agüero^rND^nGustavo^sCediel Giraldo^rND^nJerusa^sBrignardello Guerra
Relationship between nutritional status and sleep duration in Chilean school age children

Samuel Durán Agüero, Gustavo Cediel Giraldo, Jerusa Brignardello Guerra

Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud. Universidad San Sebastián. Chile. Colegio de Nutricionistas Universitarios de Chile.


SUMMARY. Objective: To establish the relationship between sleep duration, nutritional status and caffeinated beverage consumption patterns in school-age Chilean children. Method: The study was conducted in 805 school age children, between 6 and 10 years old from 6 neighbor hoods in Santiago, Chile. Parents completed a questionnaire, which assessed sleep duration, physical activity and food intake. Anthropometric measurements were completed for children. Results: 52.6% of school age children were obese and 46.4% slept the recommended amount (≥10 hours). Normal weight subjects slept significantly more hours than obese participants, 9.8 ± 0.9 vs. 9.6 ± 0.9, respectively. Sleep duration during the week was inversely associated to obesity (OR: 3.5, 95% CI 1.3-9.2). Children drank the following beverages at night: caffeinated soft drinks (52.2 %), coffee and/or tea (32.6%) and 21.2 % both soft drinks and coffee tea caffeine beverages Conclusion: Over half of this sample of school-age Chilean children slept less than the recommended (≥10 hours) amount, with obese participants sleeping less than normal weight subjects. The intake of caffeine products in particular, caffeinated soft drinks, was higher during the night in both groups.

Key words: Sleep, obesity, nutritional status, caffeine.

RESUMEN. Relación entre el estado nutricional y la cantidad de sueño en escolares chilenos. Objetivo: establecer la relación entre cantidad de sueño, estado nutricional y consumo de cafeína en escolares Métodos: El estudio  fue realizado en 805 escolares, entre 6 a 10 años de 6 comunas de Santiago de Chile. Los padres completaron las encuestas de sueño, actividad física y consumo de alimentos. A los escolares se les realizó una evaluación antropométrica. Resultados: El 56,2% de los escolares era obeso, el 46,4% dormía menos de lo recomendado (≥10 horas). La cantidad de sueño fue significativamente mayor en los escolares normal peso que en los obesos 9,8 ± 0,9 vs 9,6 ± 0,9, respectivamente. La cantidad de sueño durante la semana fue inversamente asociada a obesidad (OR: 3,5; 95% CI 1,3-9,2). Los escolares bebían en la noche antes de dormir: bebidas carbonadatas con cafeína (52,2%), café y/o té (32,6%) y un 21,2% ambos tipos de bebidas. Conclusión: Más de la mitad de esta muestra de niños en edad escolar, dormia menos de la cantidad recomendada (≥ 10 horas), los escolares obesos dormían menos de sujetos de peso normal. Además se observa una ingesta en la noche de bebidas carbonatadas con cafeína elevada en ambos grupos.

Palabras clave: Sueño, obesidad, estado nutricional, cafeina.

Recibido:     10-09-2016   Aceptado:   21-11-2016.

INTRODUCTION

Childhood obesity is considered a worldwide health problem (1). It increases the risk of the other diseases such as diabetes, dyslipidemia, arterial hypertension and has cardiovascular consequences in adulthood (2). In the last 2 decades, Chile has undergone an epide- miological transition, where pediatric under-nutrition was replaced by overweight and obesity (3). The main strategy for the prevention and treatment against this epidemic has been a healthy diet and physical activity (4). Results of interventions, however, have not been completely effective or positive (1,4,5). Interventions that address other risks factors are needed to reduce obesity and improve intervention results. Some studies have shown an association between reduced sleep du- ration and childhood overweight, especially in young children (6-8).

Sleep behavior, a healthy diet and physical activity have an important role in the physiological processes of growth, development and health (9). Short sleep du- ration is related to changes in levels of leptin, ghrelin and cortisol, in addition to glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity (10). Additional studies have confirmed also that slept deprivation has an impact on increased hunger sensation and daytime appetite (11,12).Thus, short sleep duration is related to the risk of obesity (7). Encouraging adequate sleep as part of an intervention may be novel, effective and complementary to encouraging healthy eating habits and physical activity for the prevention and treatment of obesity (13). In recent years, an increasing number of population studies on the association between sleep and obesity among children have become available. However, similar information is not available for a pediatric large Chilean population or studies that evaluate the association bet- ween caffeine beverages and the sleep duration. Therefore, the aim of this study was to establish the relationship between sleep duration, nutritional status and caffeinated beverage consumption patterns in school-age Chilean children.
 
MATERIALS AND METHODS

  Study Population: Twelve primary schools with similar socio- economic characteristics from Santiago, Concepción and Valparaíso, Chile. Participated in the study between August 2014 and October 2015. The sample size was calculated based on a previous study (6) and was powered to detect a difference in sleep du- ration between normal and obese participants of 0.5 hour with a standard error of α=0.05 and 0.9 power.

Inclusion criteria included being between 6 and 10 years old; enrolled in the test school the day of the evaluation, and not being currently treated for sleep disturbance or depression. A total of 887 school-age children between 6 and 10 years old were approached to participate in the study and 805 completed the questionnaires (90.7%). All parents or caregivers provided signed informed consent and children provided informed assent before participation. The institutional re- view board at the Universidad San Sebastián, Chile approved this study.

Anthropometric Measurements: Trained personal measured body weight and heigh. Weight was measured without shoes or belts in light clothing, and recor- ded to the nearest 0.1 kg with a digital scale (Seca 813 digital electronic floor scale). Height was measured with a stadiometer to the nearest 1 mm without shoes. WC was measured standing with a non-elastic tape, which was applied horizontally midway between the lowest rib margin and the iliac crest. Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated as weight (kg)/height (m2). The used BMI reference was the National Center for Health Statistics/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2000 Growth Charts (14), which has been endorsed by the Chilean Ministry of Health for its use. Children were classified as obese if their BMI was >95th  percentile, non-obese if the BMI was >10th <85th percentile and overweight if the BMI was ≥85 th ≤ 95 th but this group was not considered in our study.

Sleep Duration: Parents were asked to complete the 22-item Pediatric Sleep Questionnaire (PSQ) about their children. The PSQ provides high validity and sensitivity greater than 0.8.

Eating and Physical Activity Habits: Parents were asked about the contents of the last meal of the day, specifically caffeine intake. They were also asked to report the daily physical activity habits of their children. Adequate sleep duration was definedas  sleep ≥10 hours per night (8).

Statistics: Data was entered using Excel. Normality of continuous variables was tested using the Shapiro-Wilk goodness of fit test. For normally distributed variables we used the Student t-test and the Mann Whitney U test was used for non normally distributed variables. Logistic regression was used to test the relationship between sleep duration, caffeine intake, physical activity and the dependent variable nutritional status. The α was set as <0.05 for statistical significance. We analyzed data using SPSS version 19.0, Chicago, IL.
 
RESULTS

We studied 805 school-age children of which 57% were boys; 47.4% were normal weight (n=382) and 52.6% were obese (n=423). Table 1 shows differences in weight, height and BMI by nutritional status. Forty six percent of students slept the recommended amount per night (≥10 hours). On weekdays normal weight children slept significantly more than obese students: 9.8 ± 0.9 hours vs 9.6 ± 0.9. Differences did not persist for the weekend. Normal weight girls sleep more hours on weekdays and on weekends (p<0.05). This differs from boys who only had significant differences for the weekend (p<0.05). We found no sex differences in sleep duration during the week and on the weekend.

Comparing sleep duration on weekdays by nutritional status and age among girls (Figure 1) we found that as age increased, sleep duration decreased. Six and 7- year old girls sleep significantly more compared to 10 year old girls. Normal weight girls ages 8 and 9 slept significantly more than obese girls of the same ages. We saw similar trends at other ages, but these did not reach statistical significance. We found no differences
in sleep duration on the weekend.

TABLE 1. Comparison of anthropometry and sleep duration (weekday and weekend), by sex and nutritional status.



FIGURE 1. Comparison of weekday sleep duration by age and nutritional status: males only.



FIGURE 2. Comparison of weekday sleep duration by age and nutritional status: females only.



TABLE 2. Association between nutritional status.



Figure 2 shows that for boys bet- ween 6 and 10 years, as age increases, sleep duration decreases (p<0.05). These differences were not observed for the weekend. We found no differences between normal weight and obese boys of the same age with respect to sleep duration.

Table 2 shows that sleeping <10.5 hours per night on a weekday was associated with greater odds of obesity (OR: 3.5, 95%CI 1.3-9.2). We found no other significant associations with obesity risk: sleep duration <10 or 11 hours, consumption of caffeine before bed, exercise and others (all p>0.05).

According to parent report, 32.6% of children drank coffee and tea  after 8PM, 52.2% drank soft drinks and 21.2% regularly drink coffee, tea or soft drinks before bed. With respect to physical activity, only 20.4% of students reach the recommended amounts of ≥ 3 times per week for ≥ 30 minutes, with no significant differences by nutritional status. Two percent reported never exercising.

DISCUSSION

Among other behavioral changes in industrialized countries, a decrease in total sleep duration has been noted (13). Adolescents all over the world use computers and watch television for prolonged periods, postponing sleep onset and thus decreasing total sleep duration16. In the current study we observed that obese students slept significantly less during the week than normal weight participants, but no differences were found on the weekend. Both groups responded to the sleep restriction during the week by compensating on the weekend. Observational studies conducted among children have shown sleep duration is negatively associated with BMI and obesity risk (6,8). Chen (5) ob- served that children who slept <10 hours had a 58% higher risk of overweight or obesity (combined OR=1.58; 95% CI 1.26-1.98). For every additional hour of sleep, the risk of overweight/obesity was reduced by 9% (OR=0.91; 95% CI 0.84-1). This result is similar to that in our study in which sleeping <10.5 hours during the week was associated with obesity (OR: 3.5, 95% CI 1.3-9.2). In a study conducted among Chinese adolescents, researchers showed that short sleep duration was significantly associated with greater adiposity and less lean mass in females (15). Another study demonstrated that sleeping more in the school- age period is a protective factor for obesity (OR=0.2, 95% CI 0.08-0.85) (9). The association between sleep duration and obesity and sex differences is supported by several studies (13), however we did not find these differences in our analysis. One possible explanation could be that girls are less affected by sleep duration than boys. From an evolutionary perspective, boys may be more vulnerable to environmental stress in child hood, compared to girls (16).

A national survey conducted in the U.S. (2005) showed that 45% of adolescents sleep less than the recommended amount (8 hours or more per night) and 31% are on the border. We found similar values in our study (46%). In our sample of school-age children, we also found that as age increased, sleep duration decreased. Our findings are in line with those of a representative sample of U.S. adolescents conducted by the National Sleep Foundation in 2006 that found that sleep duration was primarily decreased because subjects were going to bed later (17).

A recent study has reported a positive association between physical activity and increased sleep duration in children (18). However we did not find any association between physical activity and sleep duration, albeit the higher sedentary behavior in our sample (79.6%) compared to other studies conducted in school-age children (11,19).

Caffeinated and soft drinks were consumed regularly in both groups before bed, but is not possible to determine is this consumption has a possible disruptive role in sleep duration in obese children.

Strengths of this study include having a representative sample of public school children in Santiago and highly trained personnel carry out the anthropometric measurements. Several limitations must also be mentioned. Our study is cross sectional, thus causality cannot be determined. We used self reported measures to determine sleep duration, physical activity, and eating habits. This methodology may have introduced some bias. A final limitation is that screen time (television and/or computer) was not assessed. We consider this narrow age because Tanner staging assessment was not allowed to assess by school rules, hence a puberty assessment in this group could not be done. This is a limitation of our study.
 
CONCLUSION

Our results show that short sleep duration during the week (<10.5 hours) is associated with obesity in 6 to 10 year old school children and that obese children sleep less during the week compared to their nor- mal weight peers. Further research is needed to understand the impact of lack of sleep on children obesity, but also public health obesity interventions should include messages associated with adequate sleep duration in children.
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

For their time and helpful suggestions, we thank all of the teachers that collaborated on this project.

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^rND^sSharma^nM^rND^sHerouvi^nD^rND^sKaranasios^nE^rND^sKarayianni^nC^rND^sAtalah^nE^rND^sAmigo^nH^rND^sBustos^nP^rND^sFlodmark^nCF^rND^sMarcus^nC^rND^sBritton^nM^rND^svan Sluijs^nEM^rND^sMcMinn^nAM^rND^sGriffin^nSJ^rND^sDurán Agüero^nS^rND^sHaro Rivera^nP^rND^sCespedes^nEM^rND^sHu^nFB^rND^sRedline^nS^rND^sRosner^nB^rND^sGillman^nMW^rND^sRifas Shiman^nSL^rND^sChen^nX^rND^sBeydoun^nMA^rND^sWang^nY^rND^sZaqout^nM^rND^sVyncke^nK^rND^sMoreno^nLA^rND^sDe Miguel-Etayo^nP^rND^sLauria^nF^rND^sMolnar^nD^rND^sBuxton^nOM^rND^sCain^nSW^rND^sO'Connor^nSP^rND^sPorter^nJH^rND^sDuffy^nJF^rND^sWang^nW^rND^sSpiegel^nK^rND^sTasali^nE^rND^sLeproult^nR^rND^sScherberg^nN^rND^sVan Cauter^nE^rND^sSpiegel^nK^rND^sTasali^nE^rND^sPenev^nP^rND^sVan Cauter^nE^rND^sMagee^nCA^rND^sIverson^nDC^rND^sHuang^nXF^rND^sCaputi^nP^rND^sYu^nY^rND^sLu^nBS^rND^sWang^nB^rND^sWang^nH^rND^sYang^nJ^rND^sLi^nZ^rND^sMorselli^nLL^rND^sGuyon^nA^rND^sSpiegel^nK^rND^sKhan^nMK^rND^sChu^nYL1^rND^sKirk^nSF^rND^sVeugelers^nPJ^rND^sVillagrán Pérez^nS^rND^sRodríguez-Martín^nA^rND^sNovalbos Ruiz^nJP^rND^sMartínez Nieto^nJM^rND^sLechuga Campoy^nJL

UNA TRAYECTORIA DE LUZ

En Junio de 1950 el Instituto Nacional de Nutrición, INN, de Venezuela, publica por primera vez el Volumen 1, Número 1 de “Archivos Venezolanos de Nutrición”, AVN, (...) “ una publicación científica dedicada exclusivamente a la Nutrición.

” En los siguientes 15 años AVN publica sin interrupción 29 Números distribuidos en 16 Volúmenes. Durante la celebración de la Tercera Conferencia sobre los Problemas de Nutrición en la América Latina, en 1953, se consideró extraoficialmente la creación de una revista latinoamericana de nutrición.

Dos años mas tarde en 1955, apareció en AVN un Editorial que bajo el título “ Hacia una Revista Latinoamericana de Nutrición ”, dejaba vislumbrar el inicio de esta realidad. En Noviembre de 1964 se celebra en Caracas las Primeras Jornadas Venezolanas de Nutrición y allí se plantea la necesidad de la creación de una revista latinoamericana con el fin de centralizar en ella los numerosos trabajos que se elaboran en el hemisferio, ya que la mayoría de ellos se encuentran dispersos en publicaciones de difícil acceso. En consonancia con este criterio, durante el Congreso de Nutrición del Hemisferio Occidental celebrado en Noviembre de 1965 en Chicago, Illinois, se funda la Sociedad Latinoamericana de Nutrición, SLAN, y uno de sus principales objetivos es la publicación de una revista que recoja las investigaciones que sobre nutrición se llevan a cabo en Latinoamérica.

En un hermoso gesto, el Gobierno de Venezuela, en comunicación firmada por el Dr. Miguel Octavio Russa, Director Ejecutivo del Instituto Nacional de Nutrición dirigida al Dr. Conrado F. Asenjo, Presidente de la recién creada SLAN, cede la revista Archivos Venezolanos de Nutrición para que esta sea transformada en el órgano oficial divulgativo de la Sociedad bajo el nombre de Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutrición, ALAN. Cito textualmente parte de la comunicación del Dr. Russa: “ La única condición para este traspaso será la de que se mencione en el rótulo externo de la nueva publicación el hecho de que fue creada originalmente como Archivos Venezolanos de Nutrición. ” Bajo este claro lineamiento, AVN, venezolana publicación, amplía su cobertura para ingresar en el ámbito latinoamericano.

El Volumen 15, Número 2 de 1965 es el último Archivos Venezolanos de Nutrición. A continuación la Sociedad Latinoamericana de Nutrición inicia en Caracas la publicación de Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutrición bajo la responsabilidad editorial del Dr. Werner Jaffé, con el Volumen 16, Número 1, Septiembre 1966, de portada azul marino a 1/12 y en su centro la frase requerida por el INN. Durante los próximos 11 años, ALAN es publicado en Caracas y en 1978 la edición del Volumen 78 es trasladada al INCAP en Guatemala hasta el Volumen 41, 1991, período en el cual el Dr. Ricardo Bressani desempeña el cargo de Editor General. La revista regresa a Caracas para continuar su publicación con el Volumen 42, Marzo 1992, con estreno de nueva portada a 1/8, fondo blanco, con letras azules y espigas de trigo doradas. Entre 1992 y 2016, ALAN ha publicado ininterrumpidamente 24 Volúmenes con un total de 96 Números y 14 Suplementos.

En 1994 ALAN recibe el Premio Anual “Tulio Arends” otorgado por el CONICIT, (actualmente FONACIT) Venezuela, a la mejor revista científica y tecnológica nacional y en 1995 la Mención Honorífica al mismo Premio. En Febrero 2007 el FONACIT, en una Evaluación de Mérito de 74 revistas científicas y tecnológicas venezolanas, otorga a ALAN el cuarto lugar quedando ubicado en la segunda posición dentro del área de Biomedicina.

En la Evaluación Integral de 2010, ALAN obtiene una calificación de 80 puntos, para quedar en el quinto lugar sobre un total de 22 revistas. Desde 2016 ALAN es indexado en la Base de Datos MEDES, por gentil invitación de Iniciativa MEDES-MEDicina en Español, en nombre de la Fundación Lilly. Este merecido homenaje al prestigio de ALAN pone a disposición de los profesionales sanita rios de habla hispana, una herramienta de consulta bibliográfica cuyas características mas apreciadas son la calidad y la actualización continua, así como la evaluación rigurosa de sus contenidos. En Septiembre de 1968 se realiza en Caracas el primer Congreso de la SLAN y el Editorial del Volumen 19 de ALAN recoge un emotivo discurso del Dr. José Eduardo Dutra de Oliveira, su Presidente, bajo el título de “ Saudacaos aos participantes do 1 Congresso da SLAN ” y el Volumen 20, Marzo 1970, incluye el Suplemento donde se da a conocer el informe de los Grupos Asesores sobre los temas discutidos en el Congreso. La presencia de Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutrición como órgano divulgativo oficial de la SLAN, ha sido relevante en estos eventos científicos. A continuación un listado de los 17 Congresos de la SLAN realizados, quien lo presidió, ciudad, país y fecha. El Congreso XVIII está fijado para 2018 en México.

Congreso I . José E. Dutra de Oliveira. Caracas, Venezuela. Septiembre 1968

Congreso II . Fernando Monckeberg B. Viña del Mar, Chile. Diciembre 1970

Congreso III . Antonio Bacigalupo. Guatemala, Guatemala. Septiembre 1972

Congreso IV . Werner Jaffé. Caracas, Venezuela. Noviembre 1976

Congreso V . Hector Bourges. Puebla, México. Agosto 1980

Congreso VI . Juan Claudio Sanahuja. Buenos Aires, Argentina. Agosto 1982

Congreso VII . Alfredo Lam Sanchez. Brasilia, Brasil. Noviembre 1984

Congreso VIII . Sergio Valiente. Viña del Mar, Chile. Noviembre 1988

Congreso IX . Jaime Ariza Macía. San Juan, Puerto Rico. Septiembre 1991

Congreso X . Eleazar Lara Pantin. Caracas, Venezuela. Noviembre 1994

Congreso XI . Hernán Delgado. Guatemala, Guatemala. Noviembre 1997

Congreso XII . Alejandro O Donnell. Buenos Aires, Argentina. Noviembre 2000

Congreso XIII . Adolfo Chávez V. Acapulco, México. Noviembre 2003

Congreso XIV . Helio Vannuchi. Florianópolis, Brasil. Noviembre 2006

Congreso XV . Eduardo Atalah Samur. Santiago, Chile. Noviembre 2009

Congreso XVI . Manuel Hernández Triana. La Habana, Cuba. Noviembre 2012

Congreso XVII . María N. García-Casal. Punta Cana, R. Dominicana. Noviembre 2015

Al presente la edición de ALAN está en Caracas y su recorrido ejemplar en el Hemisferio Americano. “ ...debemos tener muy presente que su éxito como revista científica de reconocida responsabilidad y prestigio dependerá exclusivamente de los artículos originales de alta calidad y valor que aparezcan en sus páginas. Este es el reto que nosotros, los miembros de la SLAN, tenemos que aceptar si pretendemos que, con el correr del tiempo, nuestra revista llegue a ser algún día una de primer orden en su género, que es precisamente lo que nos proponemos. ” Tomado del Editorial, Volumen 16, Septiembre 1966, de Conrado F. Asenjo. Primera Directiva de la SLAN.

José Félix Chávez Pérez

Editor General 1997 - 2017

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Concordancia entre los indices de masa corporal nacional e internacional, como predictores de la composición corporal en adolescentes premenárquicas y menárquicas

Betty Méndez-Pérez, Joana Martín-Rojo, Maura Vásquez, Guillermo Ramírez, Coromoto Macías-Tomei, Mercedes López-Blanco

Universidad Central de Venezuela. Universidad Simón Bolívar. Fundación Bengoa para la Alimentación y Nutrición. Caracas Venezuela

 

RESUMEN

El uso de referencias nacionales e internacionales para diagnosticar el estado nutricional es una discusión de larga data, debido a las discrepancias en los resultados. En este trabajo se contrastó la capacidad del índice de masa corporal (IMC) para predecir composición corporal, diagnosticada por área grasa (AG) y/o área muscular (AM), utilizando la referencia nacional (ENCDH) vs la internacional (OMS, 2007). Este estudio comparativo fue aplicado sobre una subpoblación de la base de datos de la Unidad de Bioantropología, Actividad Física y Salud, de 364 adolescentes femeninas, escolarizadas, entre 10 y 15 años, de distintas regiones venezolanas. Se calculó el coeficiente Kappa ponderado para medir la concordancia del IMC por ambas referencias, se determinó la precisión del IMC en cada caso, utilizando medidas de sensibilidad y especificidad. Se estimaron razones de verosimilitud diagnóstica para comparar el desempeño de ambos clasificadores de composición corporal. El índice Kappa ponderado mostró mayor concordancia en AG (0,64) que en AM (0,51). La presencia de la menarquia incrementó las concordancias: AG (0,63) y AM (0,59) con respecto a las pre-menárquicas: AG (0,46) y AM (0,35). Las razones de verosimilitud diagnóstica positivas y negativas resultaron consistentemente mayores que la unidad, tanto para la predicción de AM como AG, siendo siempre superiores en ENCDH que en OMS. Estos hallazgos muestran que en adolescentes pre-menárquicas la referencia ENCDH es más indicativa para el déficit y el exceso en área muscular, que la OMS, mientras que esta última es más indicativa del exceso en área grasa en adolescentes pre-menárquicas.

Palabras clave: Menarquia, composición corporal, concordancias, razones de verosimilitud, referencia nacional e internacional, Venezuela.

SUMMARY.

Concordance between national and international bodymass index as a predictor of body composition in premenarcheal and menarcheal adolescents. Use of national and international references for the diagnosis of nutritional status is controversial. Concordance between national and international body mass index as predictors of body composition in 364 premenarcheal and menarcheal female adolescents (ages 10-15), classified according to occurrence of menarche, that were part of the database of the bioanthropology, physical activity and health unit, were evaluated. This study compares the capacity of body mass index (BMI) to predict body composition, diagnosed by upper arm fat area (UFA) and/ or upper arm muscle area (UMA), using national reference (ENCDH) vs International (WHO, 2007). The weighted Kappa coefficient was applied to evaluate the concordance between BMI by national and international references, as well as to assess the precision of BMI by means of sensibility and specificity. Additionally, diagnostic verisimilitude ratio was estimated to measure the efficiency of both references in the classification of body composition. The weighted Kappa showed greater concordance in UFA (0.64) versus UMA (0.51). The presence of menarche increased the concordances: UFA (0.63) and UMA (0.59) with respect to premenarcheal girls: UFA (0.46) and UMA (0.35). The positive and negative diagnostic likelihood ratios were consistently greater than one, for fat and muscle area, especially when using ENCDH reference. The findings suggest that prevalence of deficit or excess in UMA was more sensitive with the BMI_ENCDH than with the BMI_WHO, in premenarcheal girls. On the other hand, WHO was more sensitive to predict UFA excess in the same group.

Key words: Menarche, body composition, weighted Kappa coefficient, diagnostic likelihood ratios, international and national growth references, Venezuela.

Recibido: 29-07-2016

Aceptado: 24-11-2016

INTRODUCCIÓN

La evaluación del estado nutricional y de la composición corporal, ésta última como elemento determinante del primero, es un objetivo prioritario en el campo de la epidemiología nutricional y la salud pública. Ambos indicadores son utilizados en la literatura especializada como una herramienta básica para evaluar el nivel primario de salud de la población.

Para los diagnósticos de sobrepeso, obesidad e insuficiencia ponderal en edades pediátricas, con grados de sensibilidad y especificidad muy satisfactorios utilizando exclusivamente la antropometría nutricional, se han propuesto diversos indicadores antropométricos que cuantifican la magnitud del tejido adiposo y muscular, con el objeto de identificar situaciones de riesgo o con propósitos de intervención. Entre los más utilizados, tanto en clínica como en estudios poblacionales,a pesar de su limitación en tanto que no identifica masa grasa y masa muscular de manera independiente (1), destaca el índice de masa corporal (IMC),considerado como el instrumento más común de medición en estudios epidemiológicos (2-4). El uso de este indicador en un comienzo estuvo restringido a la evaluación del adulto, pero en tiempos recientes ha sido igualmente recomendado para la valoración de niños y adolescentes (5, 6), ya que el IMC permite estimar los cambios de la adiposidad en la etapa del crecimiento, al presentar una alta tendencia a la canalización (7).

Sin embargo aún con la aceptación de su uso en edades pediátricas, varias investigaciones señalan la necesidad de que en este grupo y para efectos de diagnóstico, el IMC esté acompañado de otros indicadores de composición corporal como el área grasa (AG) y el área muscular (AM)(8,9), especialmente durante la pubertad, ya que durante este período del ciclo vital las diferencias son mayores debido al ritmo o tempo de maduración (10-12).

Aunque parece existir un consenso en la utilización de criterios internacionales para la evaluación del sobrepeso y la obesidad, tanto en niños como en adolescentes, su aplicación continúa siendo motivo de controversia, ante la variabilidad de resultados encontrados de acuerdo con la referencia utilizada (13), diferencias que no pueden ser atribuibles únicamente a la selección de los valores límite de cada referencia (P10 y P90 en la referencia nacional; P15 y P85 en la internacional), sobre todo en aquellos países que cuentan con valores de referencia nacionales que contemplan las particularidades propias de su composición corporal(14, 15).

Ante esta dicotomía, el objetivo de la presente investigación fue evaluar la capacidad del IMC para predecir composición corporal, diagnosticada por AG y por AM, utilizando la referencia nacional (16) en comparación con la referencia internacional (17),en adolescentes de sexo femenino clasificadas según presencia o no de la menarquia.

MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS

Esta investigación es de carácter comparativo y está enmarcada dentro de los objetivos contemplados en la Unidad de Investigación: Bioantropología, Actividad física y Salud (ubafs.ucv) del Instituto de Investigaciones Económicas y Sociales de la Universidad Central de Venezuela. Las participantes en este estudio constituyen una subpoblación de 364 adolescentes femeninas del banco de datos de la mencionada unidad con el siguiente criterio de inclusión: sexo femenino, aparentemente sanas, escolarizadas, con edades comprendidas entre los 10 y 15 años, residentes en zonas de Caracas y del estado Mérida (Venezuela), con registro de presencia/ausencia de la menarquia.

El banco de datos de la unidad contiene información antropométrica, socioeconómica, demográfica y cultural, de maduración somática, menarquia, actividad física y aptitud física, recabada en instituciones educativas provenientes de 5 estudios transversales realizados en varios estados de Venezuela entre los años 2011 al 2015, y con consentimiento informado, en adolescentes desde los 9 años hasta los 18 años de uno y otro sexo. Las investigaciones se llevaron a cabo de acuerdo con las normas deontológicas reconocidas por la declaración de Helsinski (18). En estos cinco estudios las variables antropométricas fueron recopiladas por antropometristas experimentados de acuerdo con los lineamientos de la Sociedad Internacional para el Avance de la Kinantropometría (19); de la siguiente manera: el peso corporal con el sujeto de pie en el centro de la balanza sin apoyo y distribuido equitativamente en ambos pies, empleándose una balanza electrónica portátil -PretitionTech- con gradación cercana a los 100 g. La talla máxima se apreció con un estadiómetro portátil marca Harpenden con escala métrica de 1mm de precisión; se consideró la distancia perpendicular entre los planos transversales entre los puntos del Vertex y el inferior de los pies. El pliegue de tríceps se apreció en la línea media de la cara posterior del brazo que se encuentra con la línea acromialeradiale media proyectada perpendicularmente al eje longitudinal del brazo, para ello se utilizó un calibrador Slim Guide con precisión de 0,5 mm y una presión de cierre constante de 10g/mm2.

Las variables consideradas para este estudio fueron las siguientes: peso en kg (P), talla en metros (T), pliegue tríceps en mm (PlTr), circunferencia media del brazo en cm (CB), edad en años (E) y presencia o no de la menarquia. Con esta información se calcularon los indicadores: índice de masa corporal (IMC), área grasa (AG) y área muscular (AM), mediante las siguientes fórmulas IMC (20); AG y AM (21): Para cada uno de estos tres índices se aplicó un criterio de clasificación en tres categorías (déficit, normal y exceso) utilizando valores de referencia nacionale internacional. Para el caso nacional se usaron las tablas del ENCDH (16). En este sentido se utilizó la siguiente regla basada en los percentiles correspondientes: déficit: <P10, normal: ≥P10 y ≤P90, y exceso: >P90 (22). Para la referencia internacional se utilizaron los nuevos estándares de la OMS para niños y adolescentes entre 5-19 años de edad (17). En este caso la clasificación se sustenta en el siguiente criterio: déficit: <P15, normal: ≥P15 y ≤ P85, y exceso: >P85. La presencia o no de la menarquia derivó dos grupos de adolescentes para el análisis: premenárquicas y menárquicas (23).

MÉTODOS ESTADÍSTICOS

Los procedimientos estadísticos utilizados para comparar el desempeño del IMC como predictor tanto de AG como de AM, según las dos referencias (ENCDH y OMS), consistieron en establecer mediciones de los siguientes cuatro aspectos:

a) Concordancia entre ambas referencias, evaluada en el grupo de niñas con composición corporal normal (según los indicadores AG o AM) y clasificadas de acuerdo con la presencia o ausencia de la menarquia. Para estos efectos se utilizó el coeficiente Kappa-wponderado, pro- puesto por Fleiss y Cohen (24), y definido como: Kappaw = siendo una medida global del acuerdo entre las dos reglas, determinada como la suma ponderada de las probabilidades estimadas de que el IMC por la primera y segunda referencias clasifiquen simultáneamente a una adolescente en las categorías i y j respectivamente, y una medida global del acuerdo esperado entre las dos reglas, bajo el supuesto de independencia. Para efectos de interpretación se ha convenido en asumir el siguiente criterio para la concordancia: pobre (0,0-0,2), débil (0,2-0,4), moderada (0,4-0,6), buena (0,6-0,8) y muy buena (0,8 -1,0).

b)Precisión del IMC según cada una de las reglas, para clasificar una adolescente en la condición de déficit o de exceso, según su composición corporal, en forma separada para AG y AM. Las medidas de precisión utilizadas fueron la sensibilidad (fracción de verdaderos positivos: FVP) y la especificidad (fracción de verdaderos negativos: FVN), determinándose además las correspondientes fracciones de error: fracción de falsos negativos (FFN) y fracción de falsos positivos (FFP).

c)La capacidad de cada regla para predecir la composición corporal (AG y AM) por déficit o por exceso, evaluada mediante razones de verosimilitud diagnósticas, distinguiéndose además las adolescentes según presencia o no de la menarquia. Las razones de verosimilitud diagnóstica positivas (25) quedan definidas mediante el cociente: DLR+ =cuyos valores mayores que la unidad constituyen un indicativo de que una persona clasificada con déficit o exceso, es más probable que presente esta condición a que no la tenga. También se calcularon razones de verosimilitud diagnósticas negativas definidas en la forma DLR-=, cociente cuyos valores menores que la unidad indican que una persona clasificada como normal, es más probable que realmente lo sea a que presente déficit/exceso.

d) Comparación de la capacidad diagnóstica de ambas reglas. Con este fin se calcularon las razones de verosimilitud diagnósticas relativas, definidas de la siguiente manera: rDLR+ ( IMC_ENCDH, IMC_OMS) = donde sirDLR+>1, entonces una persona clasificada con défict/exceso según IMC_ENCDHes más indicativo que según IMC_OMS, lo que da mayor certeza en la clasificación obtenida por la primera regla, y: rDLR-( IMC_ENCDH, IMC_OMS) = donde sirDLR<1, entonces una persona clasificada como normal según IMC_ENCDHes más indicativo que según IMC_OMS (25).

RESULTADOS

La evaluación de la composición corporal para la gran mayoría de las participantes en el estudio, permitió clasificarlas como normales, tanto en lo que respecta a reservas calóricas medidas por AG (87%), como a las reservas proteicas medidas por AM (74,5%). Asimismo, el IMC correspondiente a un alto porcentaje de estas adolescentes estuvo en la normalidad para la referencia nacional (80%), observándose sin embargo una importante disminución para la referencia foránea (67%) (Figura1). En general, las magnitudes observadas del coeficiente Kappa ponderado en los distintos grupos bajo estudio, indicaron un nivel de moderado a bueno en la concordancia entre los clasificadores IMC_ENCDH e IMC_OMS (Figura 2). Debe destacarse sin embargo, el caso de adolescentes premenárquicas con composición corporal normal según área muscular, en las que la concordancia registrada resulto más bien débil (0,37). Adicionalmente, resalta el hecho de que este coeficiente sea moderadamente más elevado en las adolescentes con composición corporal normal según área grasa, en comparación con las normales de acuerdo al área muscular, independientemente de la ocurrencia de la menarquia.

En la Tabla 1 se muestra que la sensibilidad del IMC_ENCDH para clasificar correctamente el déficit en AG fue relativamente baja, siendo menor en las post-menárquicas (0,43) que en las premenárquicas (0,56). Por consiguiente, las fracciones de error al clasificar un déficit como normal fueron muy altas: 57% en las menárquicas y 44% en premenárquicas. Cabe resaltar además que comparativamente esta referencia tiene un mejor desempeño en la predicción del exceso que del déficit, tanto en pre como en post-menárquicas. Por su parte, la precisión del IMC_OMS para clasificar correctamente tanto el déficit (sensibilidad: 0,57 a 0,67) como el exceso (sensibilidad: 0,84 a 0,92), fue muy superior a la de la referencia nacional, independientemente de la ocurrencia de la menarquía, mostrando también un mejor desempeño para la predicción del exceso. Se encontró en general que la referencia nacional fue más específica que sensible tanto para el déficit como para el exceso, lo que hizo que las fracciones de error resultaran pequeñas en la clasificación de adolescentes normales. Un comportamiento similar se observó para la referencia foránea, solamente en el caso de déficit.

FIGURA 1. Distribución porcentual de las adolescentes según categorías de los indicadores de composición corporal y nutricional.

 

En la predicción del área muscular, las dos referencias diagnósticas evidenciaron un comportamiento análogo al del área grasa (Tabla 2). En todas las situaciones bajo estudio, el IMC_OMS siempre fue más sensible que IMC_ENCDH. Con respecto al mejor desempeño de las dos referencias para la predicción del exceso, en relación a la correspondiente al déficit, esto solamente se observó en las adolescentes premenárquicas. En cuanto a la especificidad, el IMC_ENCDHsiempre resultómás específico que sensible, condición que en la referencia foránea solo fue evidente para el déficit.

Las verosimilitudes diagnósticas positivas (DLR+) obtenidas para ambas referencias fueron todas mayores que la unidad (3,60 a 34,67) (Tabla 3). Estos resultados constituyen un indicativo de que un diagnóstico de composición corporal de acuerdo al AM o AG en las dos categorías de déficit o exceso basado en el IMC, resultó al menos tres veces más probable que proviniera de una adolescente con una alteración real, que de una normal. Este hallazgo se evidenció con mayor intensidad para el IMC_ENCDH como predictor del área muscular en premenárquicas, tanto para el déficit como para el exceso. Por su parte, las verosimilitudes diagnósticas negativas (DLR-) según las dos referencias, resultaron todas menores que la unidad (0,09-0,61).

Esto significa que en el caso de diagnosticar una adolescente como normal es más probable que su composición corporal (AM o AG) sea normal a que no lo sea (Tabla 4). En este sentido destaca en importancia el caso de IMC_OMS como predictor del área grasa en las adolescentespremenárquicas para la categoría diagnóstica de exceso, es decir, si una persona ha sido clasificada como normal por IMC_OMS, sería poco probable que su condición diagnóstica estuviera en la categoría de exceso.

Las Figuras 3 y 4 permiten señalar que para predecir alteraciones de la composición corporal por déficit o por exceso mediante el IMC en las adolescentes menárquicas, resultó indistinto recurrir a la referencia nacional o a la foránea ya que los valores no difieren sustantivamente de la unidad. Sin embargo, en el caso de adolescentes premenárquicas, se encontró que la referencia nacional era más indicativa que la foránea, tanto en el diagnóstico del déficit según área muscular [rDLR + (ENCDH,OMS) =4,83] como del exceso [rDLR+(ENCDH,OMS)=3,09]. Mención aparte merece el caso de predicción de normalidad según área grasa, en el cual la referencia foránea tuvo un mejor desempeño que la nacional [rDLR-(ENCDH,OMS)= 2,82].

DISCUSIÓN

A nivel mundial se han llevado a cabo diversas reuniones de expertos para consensuar distintos criterios técnicos y metodológicos, en torno al uso e interpretación de los indicadores antropométricos en la investigación científica y en la definición de políticas de salud de niños y adolescentes, relacionadas con el estado nutricional de este grupo poblacional. Esta tarea es de particular importancia cuando la acción está dirigida a la identificación de grupos de riesgo o evaluar los resultados de programas de salud.

En este artículo se analizaron las diferencias y/o similitudes en el comportamiento del IMC por las referencias nacional e internacional para predecir el estado nutricional antropométrico de un grupo de adolescentes, evaluado en términos de su composición corporal con base en los componentes de área grasa y área muscular, utilizando los valores límite recomendados para cada caso. Adicionalmente, se consideró la presencia o ausencia de la menarquia como un factor importante para evaluar los resultados de la predicción.

Los primeros hallazgos revelaron diferencias en la identificación de adolescentes normales utilizando el IMC por una u otra referencia, encontrándose que la referencia internacional reportó una menor prevalencia en lo que corresponde al estado nutricional normal.

En general el nivel de concordancia observado entre las referencias diagnósticas osciló entre moderado y bueno, con una excepción en el grupo de premenárquicas con área muscular normal, en las que el comportamiento de las reglas es discordante. Este hallazgo debe llamar la atención ya que en una investigación realizada en una muestra longitudinal de Caracas, se encontró que a diferencia del área grasa, el componente muscular por su parte presentaba diferencias según el ritmo o tempo de maduración (26).Una explicación parcial de este último hecho estriba en que el IMC por la referencia nacional es más específico que sensible tanto para la predicción de área grasa como de área muscular, y en consecuencia induce un menor riesgo de error en la clasificación de niños normales. Por el contrario, en general el IMC foráneo es más sensible que específico, lo que conlleva a un menor riesgo de error en la clasificación de la malnutrición en general. Este comportamiento de las reglas queda manifiesto también en las razones de verosimilitud diagnósticas positivas, siempre mayores en ENCDH que en OMS. Estas comparaciones, que seresumen en las razones de verosimilitud relativas, llevan a concluir que en las adolescentespremenárquicas la referencia ENCDH es más indicativa de déficit/exceso en área muscular que la OMS,mientras que esta última es más indicativa del exceso en área grasa en adolescentes premenárquicas.

La comparación de las referencias diagnósticas ENCDH y OMS realizadas en este estudio, pueden permitir ser de utilidad en la toma de decisiones más eficientes en la focalización e intervención de esta problemática dirigida a la población adolescente. Esta eficiencia se traduce en la escogencia de la referencia diagnóstica apropiada, ya que una clasifica mejor a los normales y la otra mejor a la malnutrición. Además se encontró que la referencia nacional es más indicativa que la foránea para la reserva proteica en el grupo de adolescentes premenárquicas.

Aun cuando para este trabajo no se evaluaron los caracteres sexuales secundarios (glándulas mamarias y vello pubiano), algunas de las adolescentes clasificadas como premenárquicas podrían mostrar un comportamiento similar al encontrado en las menárquicas; puesto que la menarquia es un evento relativamente tardío dentro del periodo puberal.Estas diferencias son consistentes con otros estudios reportados por la OMS, en los cuales la estimación de las prevalencias de sobrepeso y obesidad están influenciadas por la selección de la población, ya que éstas tienden a pertenecer a muestras de niños y adolescentes eutróficos, es decir personas con un estado nutricional evaluado por antropometría, dentro de los parámetros considerados normales (27).

Las diferencias encontradas derivadas del evento de la menarquia en este grupo de estudio, revela la importancia de la selección en el uso del estándar nacional o internacional, el cual debe ser tomado en consideración para valorar el grado de déficit o exceso nutricional. Se ha llegado a conclusiones similares en estudios realizados en poblaciones belgas, norteamericanas y venezolanas, basados en los diferentes grados de maduración, los cuales inciden en modificaciones de la composición corporal que alteran a su vez, la valoración del estado nutricional (28-31). Por otra parte, queda demostrado que los niveles de concordancia del IMC varían de acuerdo al componente objeto del análisis, ya sea que se refiera al graso o muscular, encontrándose coincidencias más relevantes cuando se trata del primero.

Estos resultados vendrían a fortalecer la propuesta de Atalah y colaboradores (32), en cuanto a la necesidad de retomar mesas de trabajo para dilucidar el tema del uso de referencias locales versus internacionales, ya que las diferencias encontradas así lo justifican.

CONCLUSIONES

Los hallazgos obtenidos en esta investigación permiten concluir que en adolescentes con composición corporal normal según AG, se observaron niveles de concordancia entre ambas referencias, similares para los dos grupos. En las adolescentes con composición corporal normal según el AM, se observó mayor concordancia entre ambas referencias en las menárquicas que en laspremenárquicas. La predicción tanto del déficit como del exceso es más confiable con la referencia ENCDH que con la OMS, con resultados más relevantes en las adolescentes premenárquicas; sin embargo, es oportuno mencionar, que la referencia nacional resultó menos convincente que el de la referencia OMS como predictor de la condición de normalidad. En general, el IMC_OMS es levemente menos específico que el IMC_ENCDH.

AGRADECIMIENTOS

Los autores dejan constancia de su agradecimiento al Consejo de Desarrollo Científico y Humanístico de la Universidad Central de Venezuela, institución que mediante el financiamiento de varios proyectos de investigación, ha permitido la construcción de una base de datos en el área de la biología humana.

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Recibido: 29-07-2016

Aceptado: 24-11-2016

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Moringa oleifera: Revisión sobre aplicaciones y usos en alimentos

Guillermo Doménech Asensi, Alba Manuela Durango Villadiego y Gaspar Ros Berruezo

Universidad de Murcia, España. Universidad de Córdoba, Colombia.

 

RESUMEN

La Moringa oleifera es un árbol originario de de terminadas regiones Asia y África, con capacidad de adaptación a territorios de climas calurosos y pluviometrías escasas. Las diferentes estructuras de la planta (hoja, raíz, corteza, flores, vainas...) se consumen como terapéutico para diferentes dolencias. Estas estructuras posee un elevado poder nutritivo (vitaminas, minerales o aminoácidos esenciales entre otros) que le otorgan un importante papel potencial en la prevención y lucha de la desnutrición. La literatura científica recoge numerosos efectos saludables de las diferentes partes de la moringa tales como efecto antioxidante y antiinflamatorio o bactericida entre otros. Con el objetivo de hacer llegar las pro piedades de la moringa al consumidor se están desarrollando estudios con diferentes alimentos, principalmente productos cárnicos y panes, en los que se incorpora la moringa (hoja, se milla, extractos, etc.) como ingrediente. En los productos cárnicos se utiliza como aditivo conservante y antioxidante con muy buenos resultados sin afectar las características sensoriales del producto final. En el sector de la panadería el objetivo suele ser el enriquecimiento nutricional del alimento. En estos casos las características sensoriales son más variables dependiendo de la dosis utilizada y el producto en estudio (pan, galletas, etc.). La industria alimentaria tiene un interesante reto por delante: la incorporación de la moringa como ingrediente, sustituyendo diferentes conservantes y antioxidantes químicos por otros naturales y al mismo tiempo la preparación de productos básicos, como el pan, altamente nutritivos, ideales para determinados grupos poblacionales en mayor riesgo de desnutrición.

Palabras clave: Moringa oleifera , antioxidante, alimentos, productos cárnicos, pan

SUMMARY.

Moringa oleifera : A review of food ap plications

Moringa oleifera is a tree native to certain re gions Asia and Africa, adaptable to territories of hot weather and low precipitation rates. In some areas diffe rent parts of the tree (leaves, roots, bark, flowers, pods...) are consumed as a therapeutic for different illnesses. These structures have also a high nutritional value (vita mins, minerals and essential amino acids among others) giving an important potential role in the prevention of malnutrition. The scientific literature describes many sa lutary effects of the different parts of the moringa such as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory or bactericide, among others. With the aim of bringing the properties of moringa to consumers, a few studies have been developed with different foods, mainly meat and bread, in which the moringa is incorporated as an ingredient (leaf, seed, ex tracts, etc). In meat products it is used as a preservative and antioxidant additive with very good results without affecting the sensory characteristics of the final product. In the field of bakery the objective is usually as nutritional fortification. In these cases the sensory characteristics are variable depending on the dose used and the product under study (bread, cookies, etc). The food industry has an inte resting challenge ahead: the incorporation of moringa as a natural ingredient, as a substituting different classical preservatives and antioxidant and at the same time prepa ring food commodities, such as bread, with high nutritio nal value, ideal for certain population groups in risk of malnutrition.

Key words: Moringa oleifera , antioxidant, food, meat products, bread

INTRODUCCIÓN

La Moringa oleifera es un árbol caducifolio, de crecimiento rápido, con raíces tuberosas y gruesas, hoja verde claro, de floración abundante, con frutos en cápsulas alar gadas y colgantes y que contienen semillas oscuras. Se asocia a zonas tropicales y subtropicales, bastante resistente a la sequía, con una temperatura de crecimiento ideal de 25-35ºC, aunque puede tolerar hasta los 48ºC (1). Recibe diferentes nombres, tales como Drums tick tree, Horse Radish tree o Ben oil tree (2). Es originario de la India, Pakistán, Asia Menor, Arabia y África pero se ha extendido hacia otras regiones como Filipinas, todo el continente americano y Caribe (3). En muchas de estas zonas el consumo de la moringa (hojas, frutos, vaina, flores o raíz) está arraigado en la cultura popular debido a las propiedades curativas que se le atribuyen para el tratamiento de diferentes afecciones, por lo que también se la denomina “árbol milagro” y se utiliza habitualmente como remedio natural para gran diversidad de afecciones como las fiebres de la malaria o fiebres tifoideas, otitis, infecciones oculares, hiperglucemia, hipertensión, parasitosis intestinales, anemias o dermatitis entre otras. En Nigeria la forma más habitual de consumo es de hojas troceadas en sopa, en infusión, en ensalada, como especia o consumidas crudas como tentempié (4). Los motivos para esta gran variedad de funciones pueden ser debido a su alto poder nutritivo. Se describe que “onza por onza, las hojas de moringa contienen más vitamina A que las zanahorias, más calcio que la leche, más hierro que las espinacas, más vitamina C que las naranjas, y más potasio que los plátanos” (5). Por otro lado la comunidad científica describe en los últimos años el mecanismo de acción en muchas de estas propiedades curativas, en multitud de estudios con diferentes partes de la estructura de la moringa y con diferentes diseños metodológicos, tanto in vivo como in vitro (3, 6). En ellos se describe los efectos potenciales para la salud de las diferentes partes del árbol, actividad antihipertensiva, diurética, hipocolesterolemiante, antiulcerosa, hepatoprotectora, antitumoral, antibacteriana y antifúngica entre otras, así como propiedades de purificación de aguas. Stohs y Hartman (2) recopilan los trabajos realizados en torno a la seguridad alimentaria respecto al consumo de diferentes partes del árbol o sus extractos, posibles efectos tóxicos y eficacia con estudios en humanos, en animales de laboratorio y en cultivos celulares, concluyendo con la existencia de un amplio margen de seguridad. La finalidad de este trabajo es recopilar los trabajos más actuales en aquellas facetas más importantes de la moringa y su uso como ingrediente alimentario, donde se estudian las propiedades sobre el alimento y las repercusiones sobre la calidad sensorial de los alimentos diseñados.

Propiedades biológicas de la planta Moringa oleifera

En los últimos años han proliferado los estudios relativos a las distintas actividades de los compuestos presentes en diferentes partes de la Moringa oleifera. La Tabla 1 recoge los estudios más recientes que demuestran las actividades biológicas de los compuestos de la Moringa oleifera. La Tabla 1 recoge los estudios más recientes que demuestran las actividades biológicas de los compuestos de la moringa en el organismo.

Estudios in vivo de actividad antiinflamatorio y antioxidante

Los efectos antiinflamatorios se deben principlamente a la gran cantidad de flavonoides presentes en la hoja de moringa, donde se han descrito hasta doce compuestos distintos, derivados de la quercitina y kaempferol (7).

Minaiyan et al (8) investigaron la actividad antiinflamatoria del extracto semillas de moringa en el tratamiento de colitis ulcerosa inducida. Los autores determinaron el grado de las lesiones mediante análisis macroscópico valorando el aspecto visual, peso del colon distal y la extensión de las úlceras. También estudiaron el daño microscópico determinando la severidad y extensión de la inflamación y el daño de las criptas. El estudio se llevó a cabo con 54 ratas Wistar macho de entre 180-260 g de peso divididas en nueve grupos. Al grupo 1 (referencia) se le suministró suero salino (1ml/kg) de tratamiento placebo y no recibió inducción de colitis. Al grupo 2 (control) se le indujo la colitis (2ml de solución de acético 4% vía intracolónica) y se le suministro solución salina de tratamiento. El grupo 3 (de referencia) recibió la inducción y tratamiento farmacológico (prednisolona). Los grupos 4, 5 y 6 recibieron inducción y tratamiento con fracción hidroalcohólica del extracto de semilla de moringa a concentraciones de 50, 100 y 200 mg/kg respectivamente. Los grupos 7, 8 y 9 recibieron la inducción y el tratamiento con la fracción cloroformo del extracto a las dosis de 50, 100 y 200 mg/kg respectivamente. El tiempo de ensayo fue de cinco días. Tras el análisis de los resultados los investigadores observaron que el extracto hidroalcohólico fue el tratamiento más eficaz mostrando diferencias estadísticamente significativas (p<0.01) en los parámetros indicadores de inflamación de los grupos tratados con el extracto a 100 y 200 mg/kg respecto al grupo control. Los autores concluyen que el extracto de semilla de moringa reduce los índices de las lesiones tanto a nivel macroscópico como microscópico, mostrándose como un antiinflamatorio eficaz en el tratamiento de la colitis ulcerosa.

Das et al (9) evaluaron la actividad antioxidante del extracto etanol de hoja de moringa en el tratamiento de la esteatosis hepática no alcohólica inducida mediante dieta rica en grasa. El extracto se obtuvo a concentración de 5 mg/l y se establecieron cinco grupos de ensayo (seis ratones albino suizo macho de 20 g aprox. por grupo) combinando dieta normal y dieta grasa, con y sin suplementos del extracto y diferenciando el posible efecto terapéutico o preventivo, con una duración del ensayo de 15 días. El grupo 1 (control) recibió un dieta estándar, grupo 2 recibió dieta estándar y suplemento de 150 mg/kg del extracto vía esofágica, grupo 3 con dieta grasa, grupo 4 con dieta grasa durante 15 días y tratamiento con extracto los últimos cinco días (se evalúa el efecto terapéutico), y grupo 5 con dieta grasa y extracto simultáneamente durante 15 días (evalúa el efecto preventivo). Los indicadores para medir la alteración hepática fueron el análisis histológico y los niveles séricos de enzimas hepáticas. Los resultados mostraron una disminución de los marcadores de daño hepático y de los signos histológicos en los grupos 4 y 5 (tratamiento terapéutico y preventivo) respecto al grupo 3 (dieta grasa), en ambos casos con diferencias estadísticamente significativas (p<0.05). En base a estos resultados los autores concluyen que el extracto de hoja de moringa tiene efecto preventivo y terapéutico de la esteatosis hepática no alcohólica provocada por una dieta rica en grasas.

Tumer et al (10) estudiaron el mecanismo por el cual las hojas de moringa ejercen su función antioxidante. Se realizó un estudio in vitro con líneas celulares hepáticas Hepa 1c1c7 de ratón. El extracto de las hojas se separó en dos fases, una rica en polifenoles y otra en isotiocianatos. Para evaluar la acción antioxidante se diferenció entre una actividad indirecta (actividad de la NAD(P)H quinona oxidorreductasa1-NAQO1) y una actividad directa (capacidad de absorción de radicales de oxigeno-ORAC). Tras la adición del extracto y evaluación del mismo los autores observaron que la en fracción rica en polifenoles hubo una mayor actividad de la NAQO1 mientras que la fracción rica en isotiocianatos produjo mayor absorción de radicales de oxígeno. De esta manera los autores explican que la actividad antioxidante de la hoja de moringa y su potencial terapéutico se debe, en parte, a la doble forma de actuación descrita.

Vasanth et al (11) valoraron in vitro la actividad antiinflamatoria del extracto etanólico de la corteza del tronco de la moringa. Provocaron la inducción mediante exposición a lipopolisacáridos (LPS) de sustancias pro inflamatorias en líneas celulares humanas de monocitos THP-1. Se realizaron seis cultivos celulares: un control negativo sin exposición LPS (referencia), un control positivo con exposición a LPS (1.5 μg/ml durante 24h) y cuatro cultivos de ensayo con exposición a LPS (24h) y tratamiento con distintas concentraciones del extracto (31.25, 62.50, 125 y 250 μg/ml respectivamente durante 24h). Se determinó el grado de inflamación valorando la liberación de interleukina 1β (IL-1β) e interleukina 6 (IL-6) y de α-interferón (α-TNF). En todos los cultivos tratados con el extracto se observaron reducciones estadísticamente significativas (p<0.01) en las concentraciones de IL-1β, IL-6 y α-TNF. Estos resultados mostraron que el extracto de corteza de moringa puede ser útil en el tratamiento de las complicaciones vasculares asociadas a la inflamación.

Waterman et al (12), evidenciaron que, a nivel cromosómico, los isotiocianatos presentes en un concentrado de hojas frescas de moringa modulan la expresión génica para la liberación de sustancias pro inflamatorias. Los autores obtuvieron el extracto metanólico de las hojas de moringa, del cual separaron mediante un HPLC semipreparativa la fracción rica en isotiocianatos. Esta fracción se utilizó para valorar los cambios en la expresión de aquellos genes responsables de la síntesis de óxido nítrico sintetasa (iNOS), IL-1β, α-TNF e IL-6 en líneas celulares de macrófagos RAW. Estas líneas celulares fueron expuestas a diferentes concentraciones del concentrado de moringa (0, 5, 10, 50 y 100 μg/ml respectivamente) y 2 h después se indujo la respuesta inflamatoria mediante la exposición a LPS (1 μg/ml) durante 6 h. Se prepararon a su vez dos cultivos celulares, uno sin tratamiento ni exposición (control negativo) y otro con exposición y sin tratamiento (control positivo). Tras analizar los resultados de la expresión génica se observó, a la concentración de 100 μg/ml, una supresión casi total de los genes responsables de la síntesis de iNOS (p<0.001), IL-1β (p<0.05) e IL-6 (p<0.05) mientras que los genes responsables de la síntesis de α-TNF apenas se vieron afectados. Al mismo tiempo no se observó ningún sigo de citotoxicidad con ninguno de los ensayos realizados. De esta forma valoraron la pertinencia del concentrado de hojas de moringa como producto de uso alimentario para disminuir la inflamación vascular asociada a enfermedades crónicas.

Das et al (13), valoraron la capacidad del extracto de semilla de moringa (ESM) para neutralizar, in vivo, las especies reactivas del oxígeno (ERO), secundarias a una dieta rica en grasa, así como la posible protección (in vitro) que ejerce sobre los núcleos celulares y el ADN. Los autores realizaron el estudio con 26 ratones albino suizo macho y conformaron cuatro grupos, grupo 1 con dieta estándar (control negativo), grupo 2 con dieta grasa sin suplemento (control positivo), grupo 3 con dieta normal y ESM (150 mg/kg de peso vivo mediante sonda esofágica) y un grupo 4 con dieta grasa y ESM.

Los autores analizaron los siguientes indicadores: glutatión reducido (GSH), actividad superóxido dismutasa (SOD), actividad catalasa y actividad glutatión peroxidasa (GP). Los resultados mostraron en el grupo control positivo una disminución significativa de todos los indicadores respecto al grupo control negativo (p<0.05) lo que indicaba un agotamiento de los mecanismos antioxidantes del hígado frente a una dieta rica en grasa. Además, en el grupo con dieta grasa y suplemento de moringa, estos valores aumentaron significativamente (p<0.05) respecto al grupo control positivo, pasando los niveles de GSH de 0.38 a 1.42 μmol/mg de proteína, los de actividad de SOD de 0.78 a 2.14 U/mg de proteína, los de catalasa de 1.15 a 4.10 U/μg de proteína y los de GP de 0.74 a 1.81 U/ml de enzima/mg de proteína.

Los ensayos in vitro consistieron en el estudio del daño a los núcleos de los hepatocitos tras la generación de radicales hidroxilo. Se utilizaron tres tubos con tejido hepático a los cuales se les adicionó Fe-EDTA para H2O2 provocar la posterior reacción de Fenton con H2O2 y la consiguiente formación de radicales hidroxilo. Uno de los tubos se utilizó como control (sin adición de H2O2 ), a otro se le añadió H2O2 y al tercero se le añadió H2O2 y ESM simultáneamente. Tras analizar los hepatocitos mediante microscopio de fluorescencia los autores describen que en el primer tubo no hubo daño nuclear mientras en el tubo con H2O2 los radicales hidroxilo provocaron la ruptura de la membrana y liberación de ácidos nucleicos. En el tubo con H2O2 y ESM los núcleos se muestran sin daño o con daños visiblemente menores al caso anterior (cuantificación no realizada en el estudio), demostrando el efecto protector del ESM frente a los radicales hidroxilo. Se concluye la utilidad del ESM como protector frente a las especies reactivas del oxigeno que se origina de forma secundaria en las dietas ricas en grasa así como protector de los núcleos celulares frente a radicales hidroxilo en los hepatocitos.

Efecto en el tratamiento de la diabetes mallitus

Sulistyorini et al (14) realizaron un estudio para determinar el mecanismo de acción del extracto de hoja  de Moringa oleifera en el tratamiento de la insulitis pancreática inducida mediante streptozocina y la expre sión de insulina en el páncreas. Se realizó un ensayo in vivo con tres grupos de animales (ratas Sprague Da wley macho de 2-3 semanas de edad) con hipergluce mia inducida mediante streptozocina (40 mg/kg de peso). Uno de los grupos se mantuvo sin tratamiento con moringa (control), y otros dos grupos fueron trata dos con extracto a dosis de 250 y 500 mg/kg/día res pectivamente. Tras 21 días de ensayo se realizaron análisis histopatológicos de las muestras de páncreas, valorando en grado de infiltración de células inflama torias y por otro lado la expresión de insulina pancreá tica. Los resultados obtenidos mostraron que en los dos grupos tratados con el extracto hubo una reducción significativa (p<0.05) en el grado de insulitis (medida cuantificando la infiltración de células inflamatorias mononucleares) pero sin diferencias entre ambos gru pos tratados. Respecto a la expresión de insulina, se cuantificó la presencia de células β en los islotes de Langerhans mediante la escala 0-8 de Alfred, observando un incremento significativo (p<0.05) entre el grupo control (4.80) y los grupos tratados con 250 y 500 mg/kg (7.58 y 7.85 respectivamente) pero sin diferencias según el tratamiento. En base a estos datos los autores concluyeron que el extracto de hoja de moringa aumenta la expresión de insulina y disminuye la insulitis a nivel pancreático.

Pimjai et al. (15) desarrollaron otro estudio en hu manos sanos a los que se les suministró vía oral dosis de 0, 1, 2 y 4 g de hoja de moringa en polvo encapsu lado en cuatro ensayos separados por dos semanas y tras 12 horas de ayuno en cada uno. Tras la realización de los análisis los niveles de glucosa en sangre se man tuvieron sin diferencias significativas entre las distintas dosis (77, 78, 79 y 79 mg/dl, respectivamente) pero los niveles de insulina en sangre aumentaron en función de la dosis suministrada (2.3, 2.7, 3.3 y 4.1 μU/ml respec tivamente), siendo la diferencia entre las dosis de 4 g y el resto resultaron estadísticamente significativas (p=0.03). Los autores concluyeron que dosis altas de polvo de hoja de moringa encapsulado (4 g) incrementa significativamente la secreción de insulina, resultando un tratamiento potencial de la diabetes mellitus tipo 2.

Protector de tejidos en intoxicaciones por arsénico

Se ha evaluado también la capacidad de la hoja de moringa para atenuar el daño a nivel cardiocirculatorio y hepático en ratones suizos albinos macho de cuatro semanas de edad frente a ingestas elevadas de arsénico (16). Se utilizaron 24 animales conformado cuatro gru pos con seis animales cada uno: grupo 1 con dieta es tándar (control negativo), grupo 2 con dieta suplementada en polvo de hoja de moringa en (50 mg/kg/día), grupo 3 con dieta con arsenito de sodio en el agua de bebida (control positivo) (10 mg/kg/día) y grupo 4 con dieta con arsenito de sodio y hoja de mo ringa (combinación de los dos anteriores). Tras las 16 semanas de duración del experimento se evidencia en el grupo control positivo frente al control negativo el aumento de triglicéridos (125.47 vs. 80.30 mg/dl) y glu cosa (160.00 vs. 121.54 mg/dl) y la disminución de li poproteínas HDL (40.81 vs. 54.16 mg/dl) al mismo tiempo que aumenta las enzimas ALP (120.16 vs. 137.10 UI/l) y AST (118.28 vs. 86.22 UI/l), todos ellos con diferencias estadísticamente significativas (p < 0.05). Además, en el grupo 4 (arsenito y moringa) se observaron unos valores significativamente diferentes respecto al grupo 3 (arsenito) con niveles los niveles de triglicéridos en 85 mg/dl, HDL en 57.00 mg/dl, glucosa en 120.86 mg/dl, ALP en 123.98 UI/l y AST en 89.19 UI/l; todos muy similares a los del grupo control nega tivo. Este estudio demuestra la efectividad de la hoja de moringa en la reversión de los daños causados por la intoxicación por arsénico.

Disminución de la fatiga muscular

Lamou et al . (17) realizaron un estudio en el que suministraron un extracto acuoso de hoja de moringa a ratas Wistar macho de entre 130-132 g de peso para va lorar posteriormente la fatiga muscular frente a un ejer cicio continuado. Se realizaron cuatro grupos de estudio; el grupo 1 o grupo control, y los grupos de tra tamiento 2, 3 y 4 a los que se les suministraron vía oral 100, 200 y 400 mg/kg, respectivamente, del extracto acuoso de hoja de moringa en una dosis única diaria durante 28 días. Los animales se sometieron a pruebas de resistencia de flotación con peso añadido y otras a resistencia sin peso. Los investigadores midieron el tiempo máximo de resistencia así como parámetros bio químicos de sangre, músculo e hígado. Tras analizar los resultados los autores describen un tiempo mayor de re sistencia al ejercicio forzado (p<0.05) en las ratas de los grupos tratados (135.75, 140.12 y 131.25 segundos respectivamente) con el extracto de moringa respecto a los del grupo control (89.75 segundos). Los análisis bioquímicos evidenciaron que, en los tres grupos trata dos con extracto de hoja de moringa, se produjo, de ma nera significativa (p<0.05), una mayor acumulación de glucógeno en el tejido muscular siendo de 2.06, 2.76 y 2.68 mg/g frente a 1.19 mg/g del grupo control. En el tejido hepático ocurrió lo mismo siendo de 21.57, 22.69 y 22.64 mg/g frente a 17.68 mg/g del grupo control.

Tras el ejercicio también hubo diferencias significativas entre los grupos tratados y el grupo control en los nive les sanguíneos de lactato (24.14, 19.37 y 18.87 mmol/l vs. 31.27 mmol/l), glucosa (145.01, 147.4 y 163.9 mg/dl vs. 119.9 mg/dl), urea (26.78, 26.41 y 28.21 mg/dl vs. 45.03 mg/dl) y triglicéridos (75.05, 125.28 y 58.42 mg/dl vs. 176.77 mg/dl). De esta manera los au tores concluyen que el extracto acuoso de hoja de mo ringa tiene propiedades anti fatiga frente al ejercicio físico facilitando la movilización de los depósitos de grasa del organismo, retardando el agotamiento de las reservas de glucógeno y disminuyendo la acumulación de lactato y urea en sangre.

Propiedades antimicrobianas y purificadoras de agua

Diversos estudios in vitro demuestran la actividad antimicrobiana de los biocomponentes de la cubierta de la semilla y de la vaina de la moringa inhibiendo el cre cimiento de bacterias multirresistentes gram+ y gram (18, 19). Estos mismos investigadores observaron efec tos similares de la cubierta de la semilla inhibiendo la formación de biofilms de Staphylococcus aureus , Pseu domona aeruginosa y Candida albicans entre un 76 86%, similar al efecto obtenido con la aplicación del antibióticos (gentamicina para S. aureus y P. aerugi nosa y anfotericina para C. albicans ) (20). También se ha comparado la eficacia antibiótica de extractos de di ferentes especies vegetales (hojas de Xanthosoma ma faffa y Moringa oleifera y los frutos de Passiflora edulis) demostrado que el extracto de hoja de moringa presenta un actividad antibiótica de mayor espectro in hibiendo el crecimiento de diversas cepas bacterianas gram-multirresistentes ( Escherichia coli, Enterobactera aerogenes , Klebsiella pneumoniae , Pseudomona aeru ginosa y Providencia stuartii ) siendo E. coli la más sen sible de todas con una concentración mínima inhibitoria de 128 μg/ml (21).

Nogueira Brilhante et al . (22) evaluaron la capaci dad extractos de hojas, semilla, tallo, vaina y flores de la moringa en la inhibición del crecimiento de especies del género Vibrio ( V. cholera, V. vultificus, V. mimicus ) y E. coli en el agua de cría de camarón ( Macrobra chium amazonicum ) contaminada. El tratamiento con mayor espectro de inhibición fue el realizado con el ex tracto de la vaina, efectivo frente a V. cholera, V. vulti ficus, V. mimicus y E. coli , a concentraciones mínimas inhibitorias de 0.3125, 5, 1.25 y 2.5 mg/ml respectiva mente. El extracto de semillas resultó ser el menos efec tivo, inhibiendo solamente el crecimiento de V. cholera y a concentración de 2.5 mg/ml. Así, los autores con cluyes que estos derivados de la moringa pueden ser útiles para disminuir la contaminación de determinadas especies de Vibrio spp . y E.coli en los criaderos de ca marón, reduciendo así los posibles casos de diarrea por la ingestión de estos crustáceos.

Dasgupta et al. (23) desarrollaron un estudio para valorar la capacidad del extracto de semilla de moringa de disminuir la concentración bacteriana en agua de be bida contaminada con E. coli y Bacillus subtilis . Elaboraron extractos de la semilla a concentraciones crecientes de 1-5% de las cuales añadieron volúmenes crecientes de 2 a 10 ml en agua a purificar (100ml). La reducción máxima de E. coli y B. subtilis se encontró al añadir 10ml del el extracto al 5%, siendo del 93.2% y 96.2% respectivamente.

Su poder desinfectante también se ha demostrado en un estudio realizado por Torondel et al . (24) valorando la efectividad de la hoja triturada en el lavado de manos, comparado con el jabón. Se contrastaron un triturado fresco y otro desecado frente al jabón en manos de 15 voluntarios previamente contaminadas con E. coli . Se comparó el efecto inhibitorio de E. coli con 2, 3 y 4 g de moringa y desecada frente a 5 ml de jabón no medicado. En el ensayo con 2 g la reducción logarítmica media fue de 2.44 con el triturado fresco y 2.70 con el seco, mientras que con el jabón fue de 3.00. Con 3 g la reducción fue de 2.58, 2.84 y 2.99 res pectivamente y para 4 g de 2.70, 2.91 y 2.97, respec tivamente. En ningún caso se observaron diferencias estadísticamente significativas (p>0.05) entre la efica cia de la moringa ni el jabón. De esta forma, la hoja de moringa puede emplearse como higienizante de manos en zonas rurales donde no sea fácil la obtención de jabón.

Uso alimentario de la moringa

El uso de moringa en alimentos queda reducido casi exclusivamente a panes, galletas y productos cárnicos (Tabla 2). En los primeros se utiliza con un fin nutritivo, mientras que en los segundos con un fin tecnológico, como antioxidante y conservante principalmente.

Conocimiento y consumo de moringa

Rakotosamimanana et al (25) compararon el cono cimiento local acerca de la moringa y su consumo, comparándola con el de la mandioca. Se realizó una en cuesta a 1000 familias de diferentes zonas geográficas y nivel socio-económico acerca de si conocían o no el producto, por qué motivos lo utilizaban, forma de con sumo y motivo de no consumirlo, entre otras cuestio nes. La mandioca resultó ser mucho más conocida y consumida, a pesar de que los encuestados decían co nocer sus propiedades poco nutritivas, e incluso tóxicas si se consumía en grandes cantidades. Por el contrario las hojas de moringa eran menos conocidas y consumi das, aun conociendo sus propiedades nutritivas. Los au tores determinaron que esta diferencia se consumo se debía a factores culturales, de disponibilidad y de pre cio, y también por el mayor efecto saciante de la man dioca. Ante estos resultados los investigadores desarrollaron cuatro tipos de snack: (A) 100% man dioca, (B) 99.4% mandioca y 0.6% de hoja de moringa, (C) 89.4% mandioca, 0.6% moringa y 10% azúcar y (D) con 89.4% mandioca, 1.2% moringa y 10% azúcar. Tras el ensayo, los niños prefirieron los snack del grupo (C) y (D). Los autores concluyen que es recomendable potenciar campañas de información y el cultivo de plantaciones de moringa para hacerlas llegar a los con sumidores, ya que una vez consumida en determinadas preparaciones puede ser aceptada, especialmente en los niños por su elevado contenido en aminoácidos esen ciales, ácido α-linoleico y minerales.

Utilización en panes y galletas

En este caso la adición de los diferentes derivados de la moringa persigue el objetivo de incrementar el valor nutritivo de estos alimentos. Se ha desarrollado pan suplementado con hoja de moringa (26). El estudio se llevó a cabo con 5 mezclas a distinta concentración de hoja de moringa en polvo con harina de trigo (1%, 2%, 3%, 4% y 5%) y la harina control (100% trigo). En todos los casos se produjo un incremento de proteínas, grasas, fibra y cenizas y los niveles de Fe, Cu, Mg, Ca y β-caroteno aumentaron significativamente (p<0.05).

En cuanto a las propiedades físicas del pan elabo rado, el incremento de volumen de las piezas se vio dis minuido conforme incrementaba la concentración de hoja de moringa, desde un volumen final de 796 cm3 en el pan con 100% de trigo hasta 496 cm3 en el pan con 5% moringa. Según los autores este cambio se debió a la menor capacidad de fermentación y la menor cantidad de gluten presente conforme se aumentaba la cantidad de hoja de moringa en la mezcla de harina. Por otro lado, a adición de hoja de moringa en polvo con dujo a unas propiedades sensoriales disminuidas pena lizadas por el cambio en el color, sabor y textura. Por este motivo los autores recomendaban la utilización de la hoja de moringa pero con adición de sustancias aro matizantes para enmascarar el sabor de la misma.

Respecto al cambio de coloración del pan tras la adi ción de moringa la hoja de moringa, existe otra publi cación de pan enriquecido con espinacas y acelgas (27). En este caso los autores utilizaron concentraciones de 20g y 40g espinacas y acelgas troceadas (no molidas) por 100g de harina sin que se produjera, en general, re chazo en las propiedades sensoriales por parte de los consumidores. Es posible que para evitar un rechazo por el color verdoso sea conveniente informar al con sumidor previamente de los cambios y propiedades del pan para evitar el impacto visual o trocear las hojas del producto vegetal a introducir en vez de utilizar un tri turado en polvo para evitar en la medida de lo posible la difusión de color a toda la masa de pan.

En otro estudio se incorporó harina de semilla de moringa en pan y galletas (28). En este caso los autores utilizaron harina de semillas de moringa que, previa mente, fueron hervidas y desecadas para eliminar las sustancias responsables del sabor amargo característico de las semillas crudas. Para la elaboración del pan rea lizaron mezclas de de 95/5, 90/10 y 85/15 mientras que para la elaboración de galletas las mezclas fueron de 90/10, 80/20 y 70/30. En ambos casos se utilizaron pro ductos control a base de harina de trigo (100/0).

Las propiedades nutritivas de panes y galletas ela boradas a partir de las harinas enriquecidas mejoraron notablemente. En cuanto a las propiedades reológicas del pan, las mezclas del 0 al 15% de harina de semilla de moringa resultaron reducir significativamente el volumen de la pieza de pan y la textura de la miga. Las propiedades sensoriales se vieron perjudicadas, tanto en la corteza como en la miga, debido principalmente a la menor cantidad de gluten en la harina resultante.

Par corregir estas deficiencias, se realizó otra prueba con harina 90/10 con un 10% adicional de una mezcla de aditivos químicos (gluten deshidratado, ácido ascór bico y estearoil-lactilato de sodio), muy utilizado en pa nadería como emulsionante y conservante (29) en la que se observó una mejoría en el volumen, la textura y las características de la corteza y la miga del pan.

En el caso de las galletas se observó que concentra ciones superiores al 20% de harina de moringa afectaba negativamente al crujido y al color de la superficie. Se describe un sabor semejante al de las nueces, atípico de las galletas. Pero las galletas al 20% ofrecen unas ca racterísticas físicas y sensoriales muy aceptables, te niendo en cuenta el gran incremento en el poder nutritivo de las mismas.

Los autores de este estudio concluyeron que es fac tible realizar panes con un 10% de harina de semilla de moringa, y galletas con un 20%, tratando previamente las semilla para eliminar sustancias amargantes.

Nwakalor et al . (30) desarrollaron también galletas, pero en este caso mezclando la harina de trigo con hoja de moringa en polvo en concentraciones de 100/0 (con trol), 90/10, 80/20, 70/30 y 50/50. Los nuevos produc tos se evaluaron sensorialmente y los resultados fueron positivos en las galletas con 10% de hoja de moringa ya que no mostraron diferencias significativas respecto al grupo control. Las galletas con 20% de hoja de mo ringa fueron penalizadas en el color y el aroma pero no en la aceptación global, mientras que las galletas al 30 y 50% presentaron una disminución significativa en todos los parámetros evaluados, crujido, gusto, color, aroma y aceptación global. De esta forma los autores recomiendan la concentración del 10% de hoja triturada de moringa en harina de trigo para la elaboración de galletas.

Utilización en productos cárnicos

Se han desarrollado diversos estudios en productos cárnicos. Diferentes partes del árbol de la moringa pre sentan gran cantidad de antioxidantes y sustancias an timicrobianas (21). En estos casos se buscó evaluar la eficacia como potencial antimicrobiano y antioxidante, pudiendo ser utilizado como conservante natural. Hazra et al . (31) estudiaron la adición de extracto acuoso de hoja de moringa en hamburguesas de carne de búfalo, evaluando los efectos en las propiedades fí sico-químicas, sensoriales y de estabilidad durante el cocinado. El extracto se añadió en concentraciones de 1, 1.5 y 2% a la mezcla de preparación de las hambur guesas, manteniendo unas preparaciones control sin ex tracto añadido. Se realizaron pruebas de pH, retención de agua, pérdida de peso tras el cocinado, capacidad an tioxidante (determinando los mg de manolaldehído/kg de muestra), crecimiento microbiano y determinaciones sensoriales. Las tres preparaciones con el extracto de hoja resultaron tener valores de pH significativamente mayores (pH 6.0) que la muestra control (pH 5.5). La capacidad de retención de agua también se incrementó de forma significativa al incrementar la dosis de ex tracto hasta la concentración del 1.5% (15.1%) frente al control (12.2%). Esto provocó una menor pérdida de peso tras el cocinado en la misma relación siendo la menor en las hamburguesas enriquecidas al 1.5 y 2% (34.8%) y la máxima en la hamburguesas control (36.7%). En todos los casos las diferencias fueron es tadísticamente significativas (p<0.05).

La capacidad antioxidante medida mediante las sus tancias reactivas al ácido tiobarbitúrico (TBARS) fue mayor en la muestra enriquecida al 1% (0.27 mg de ma nolaldehido/kg) frente al control (0.42 mg/kg). Res pecto al crecimiento microbiano, todas las hamburgue sas mostraron valores muy bajos siendo menores en las preparaciones enriquecidas (2.95, 2.72 y 2.65 CFU/g respectivamente) frente a las muestras control (2.96 CFU/g), demostrando la capacidad antimicrobiana de estos extractos.

Finalmente, el análisis sensorial tras el cocinado (160°C durante 10 min) demostró una mejoría en el color de las hamburguesas enriquecidas, debido a la menor oxidación de la mioglobina; una mayor jugosi dad y terneza, relacionada con la mayor retención de agua en estas preparaciones; un sabor mejor valorado relacionado con la menor presencia de peróxidos de bido al poder antioxidante; en definitiva, una mejor va loración sensorial en las hamburguesas enriquecidas respecto a las control.

Con base a estos resultados, los autores concluyeron que la adición de extracto acuoso de hoja de moringa deshidratado al 1%, 1.5% o 2% en hamburguesas de búfalo disminuyó la oxidación de las mismas y el cre cimiento microbiano, al mismo tiempo que mejora sus cualidades sensoriales, debiendo ser promocionado como ingrediente a tener en cuenta en éste y otros pro ducto cárnicos.

Otro estudio donde se utiliza el extracto de hoja de moringa como antioxidante es el realizado por Das et al . (32) en hamburguesas de carne de cabra. En este caso los autores emplean el extracto acuoso de hojas de moringa (concentrado al 8% del volumen inicial) para comparar su efecto antioxidante frente al butil hidroxil tolueno (BHT), antioxidante habitual en productos cár nicos, pero con reconocida actividad tóxica (33). Para realizar esta comparación se elaboraron dos tipos de hamburguesas, unas con un 0.1% de BHT y otras con 0.1% de EHM, con un tiempo de almacenamiento de 15 días. Se utilizó una preparación de hamburguesas sin ningún aditivo como control. Tras la elaboración de las hamburguesas se determinaron los niveles de com puestos fenólicos que resultaron ser significativamente mayores en las elaboradas con el extracto de hoja de moringa, lo que justificaría su uso como ingrediente para aumentar el poder antioxidante de las hamburgue sas. Las hamburguesas con extracto de hoja y BHT mostraron menor oxidación (TBARS), a los 15 días de almacenamiento siendo de 0.53 y 0.6 mg de manolal dehido/kg respectivamente, significativamente infereio res (p<0.05) que las que no tenían ningún antioxidante añadido (1.2 mg de manolaldehido/kg). A nivel senso rial (apariencia, sabor, textura, jugosidad y palatabilidad general) los autores describen que con la adición del extracto no hubo pérdida de calidad, siendo aceptadas tras los 15 días de almacenamiento. De esta forma se demuestra la validez del extracto de hoja de Moringa oleifera como antioxidante en las hamburguesas de cabra sin alterar las características sensoriales de las mismas.

Al-Juhaimi et al. (34) investigaron los efectos de la adición de harina de semillas de Moringa oleifera en hamburguesas de ternera como agente aglomerante, aprovechando al mismo tiempo sus cualidades antioxi dantes y conservantes. En este caso se realizaron ham burguesas con 0%, 2%, 4% y 6% de harina de semilla, reduciendo en los mismos porcentajes la cantidad de carne magra presente en la fórmula.

Las hamburguesas se cocinaron en horno a 180°C durante 20 min hasta temperatura interna de 75°C. Pos teriormente se evaluaron las diferentes muestras y se observaron diferencias estadísticamente significativas (p<0.05) en varios parámetros. Las hamburguesas en riquecidas presentaron mayor rendimiento en el coci nado (valorado como la relación entre el peso después y antes del cocinado) respecto a las hamburguesas con trol. Este rendimiento fue proporcional a la cantidad de harina de semilla añadida, siendo del 60.04, 68.52, 72.90 y 81.81% en las muestras al 0, 2, 4 y 6% respec tivamente. Estas diferencias se debieron principalmente a la mayor retención de agua (48.54, 57.13, 64.16 y 72.19%, respectivamente) y grasa (56.17, 65.11, 69.40 y 78.29% respectivamente).

Otras variables como la oxidación, pH y creci miento microbiano se analizaron durante el almacena miento a los días 0, 7, 14 y 21. En cuanto a la oxidación, los autores revelan que fue significativamente menor en las hamburguesas con harina de moringa frente a las hamburguesas control al igual que los valores de pH fueron mayores cuanto mayor era la concentración de harina de semilla (5.68, 6.01, 6.11 y 6.16 respectiva mente medidos a los 21 días). El estudio microbioló gico para determinar crecimiento de microorganismos aerobios mesófilos a 4°C reveló diferencias significa tivas en el recuento de colonias siendo menor en todas la muestras enriquecidas a los días 7, 14 y 21, mientras que las hamburguesas sin modificar presentaron los mayores recuentos microbianos

Finalmente se realizó un análisis sensorial con pa nelistas entrenados con muestras cocinadas a los días 0, 7, 14 y 21, para determinar la variación de atributos sensoriales durante el almacenamiento. Las hambur guesas normales mostraron signos de deterioro al día 14 y las enriquecidas al 2% mostraron deterioro a los 21 días por lo que no pudieron ser analizadas sensorial mente mientras que las muestras enriquecidas al 4 y 6% no mostraron deterioro durante los 21 días de almace namiento a 4ºC. Por lo tanto, sólo se realizaron catas de las hamburguesas al 0% de harina de semilla a los días 0 y 7, al 2% a los días 0, 7 y 14 y de las hambur guesas al 4 y 6% a los días 0, 7, 14 y 21. En esos casos no se observaron diferencias significativas en paráme tros como apariencia, sabor, aroma, terneza y aceptabi lidad general.

Por lo tanto, los autores concluyeron que la harina de semilla de moringa mejoró las propiedades de las hamburguesas de ternera a nivel fisicoquímico, de coc ción, vida útil y preferencia del consumidor tras el al macenamiento en refrigeración mostrando una buena capacidad como aglomerante en la formulación de hamburguesas de ternera.

En un estudio realizado con salchichas de pollo (35), se sustituyeron los tradicionales antioxidantes químicos (BHT) por triturado de hoja de moringa. Los autores adicionaron hoja de moringa desecada a la mezcla de salchicha en concentraciones de 0.25, 0.50, 0.75 y 1%, además de una muestra control positivo (con BHT) y otra control negativo (sin antioxidante) y valoraron las muestras a la semanas 1, 2, 3, 4 y 5 de almacenamiento. El trabajo describe a las cinco sema nas una actividad antioxidante significativamente mayor de la muestra con 0,25% de hoja de moringa respecto a la muestra sin antioxidantes, e incluso de las muestras con 0.50, 0,75 y 1% respecto a la muestra con BHT. El crecimiento microbiano de aerobios me sófilos a la semana cinco de almacenamiento fue sig nificativamente menor en las salchichas con 0.25% de moringa respecto a los controles siendo las pruebas con 0.50, 0.75 y 1% las que menor crecimiento micro biano presentaron. En cuanto a las propiedades senso riales las salchichas del grupo control positivo (con BHT) y las de hoja de moringa al 0.25 y 0.50% fueron las mejor valoradas sin diferencias entre ellas, mien tras que las concentraciones de 0.75 y 1% afectaron notablemente a la apariencia, color, sabor, aroma y a la aceptabilidad global. Por lo tanto los autores con cluyeron que un 0.5% de hoja de Moringa oleifera en las salchichas de pollo reduce significativamente la oxidación lipídica y el crecimiento microbiano sin al terar las características sensoriales.

La presencia de sustancias antioxidantes en la hoja de Moringa oleifera está ampliamente descrita (36), pero estas mismas sustancias pueden verse afectadas tras los tratamientos de desecación ya que son relati vamente inestables al calor (7). Un estudio desarro llado por Saini et al. (37) determinó el efecto de cinco métodos de desecado (liofilización, cabina de secado de aire forzado, microondas, horno y secado al sol) para valorar posteriormente las propiedades antioxi dantes. Para ello se cuantificaron carotenoides, cloro fila, α-tocoferol, ácido ascórbico y compuestos fenólicos totales antes y después de la desecación. Los resultados mostraron que la cabina de aire forzado mantuvo los mayores niveles de carotenoides totales mientras que la liofilización fue el método que menor pérdida de ácido ascórbico mostró. La desecación me diante exposición solar fue la que mayores pérdidas causó. Los autores concluyen que a nivel industrial es recomendable la desecación en cámaras de secado con ventilación, y a nivel doméstico la desecación en mi croondas.

CONCLUSIONES

La Moringa oleifera ha sido utilizada de forma an cestral como curativo o paliativo de enfermedades de muy diversa índole. En los últimos años se han desarro llado gran variedad de investigaciones demostrando al gunas de sus funciones en el organismo fundamentalmente como antioxidante, antiinflamatorio o antihiperglucemiante, entre otras, así como funciones bacteriostáticas y bactericidas. Esto le otorga una capa cidad potencial para el tratamiento de diabetes, protec tor hepático o protector de los endotelios en determinadas enfermedades crónicas.

Sin embargo son todavía escasos los estudios acerca de los beneficios de la moringa utilizada como ingrediente alimentario. Los estudios en alimentos se centran valorar el incremento de las propiedades nu tritivas y la aceptación por parte del consumidor. En otros casos se valora el efecto tecnológico, principal mente como antioxidante natural, comparado con adi tivos químicos como el BHT, con marcado carácter tóxico.

Una vez descritas las propiedades potencialmente beneficiosas para la salud, el amplio margen de seguri dad en humanos (2) y también la validez como antio xidante y conservante alimentario, es necesario incrementar las investigaciones relativas al efecto sobre el organismo derivado del consumo de estos alimentos enriquecidos, teniendo en cuenta diversas variables como las posibles pérdidas de actividad durante el tra tamiento o la interacción con otros compuestos de los mismos, entre otras.

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Recibido: 14-08-2016 Aceptado: 21-12-2016  

 

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Comparative Performance of NEMS S Surveys in Latino Food Stores in the Greater Boston Area

Emily Caplan, Rebecca Kanter, Richelle Bearup, Noel W. Solomons, Odilia I. Bermudez

Tufts University, Department of International Relations, School of Medicine, Boston, MA, EEUU.

London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom .

Center for Studies of Sensory Impairment, Aging, and Metabolism (CeSSIAM), Guatemala City, Guatemala

SUMMARY

The dietary practices of diverse population groups, associated with the nutritional transition and the rapid demographic changes occurring globally require more attention to the food preferences of migrant groups such as Latinos living in the United States United States of America (US). This work aimed at the performance of an instrument utilized to measure availability of healthy food options in Latino stores located in the town of Somerville, state of Massachusetts. The methodology included the application of two versions: Guatemalan and US of the Nutrition Environment Measures Survey for Stores (NEMS S), for the assessment of the availability of healthy food options in three Latino stores. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The results indicated that foods sold in Latino stores were identified more success fully with the Guatemalan NEMS S than with the US NEMS S. There was a general lack of healthy food options found when using the US survey, as well as a relatively narrow selection of fruits and vegetables. As conclusion, it was found that the US NEMS S tended to identify a lower number of healthy food options, as compared to a larger number of similar options when a culturally appropriate survey was used. These findings illustrate a manner in which a culture specific instrument perform more appropriately than similar instruments adapted for other population groups, especially when the results are to be applied to support development of healthy food policies.

Key words: NEMS S, food environment, Latinos, food policy.

Rendimiento comparativo de Encuestas NEMS S realizadas en tiendas latinas en el área metropolitana de Boston

RESUMEN.

Las prácticas alimentarias de diversos grupos de población, asociadas a la transición nutricional, y a los rápidos cambios demográficos que se producen a nivel mundial, exigen más atención a las preferencias alimentarias de grupos migrantes, como por ejemplo Latinos en los Estados Unidos de Norteamérica (EU). Este trabajo documenta los resultados de aplicar un instrumento para medir disponibilidad de alimentos saludables en tres tiendas latinas ubicadas en la ciudad de Somerville, estado de Massachusetts. La metodología utilizada incluyó la aplicación de dos versiones: guatemalteca y EU de la Encuesta para Medir Ambiente Nutricional en Tiendas (NEMS S, siglas en inglés), para evaluar la disponibilidad de alimentos saludables. Los datos se analizaron con estadísticas descriptivas. Los resultados indicaron que los alimentos vendidos en las tiendas latinas fueron identificados con más acierto con el NEMS S guatemalteco que con el NEMS S de EU. Con este último instrumento, se obtuvo un número menor de opciones saludables y una selección limitada de frutas y de vegetales. Como conclusión, se encontró que el NEMS S de EU identificaba un menor número de opciones de alimentos saludables, en comparación con el instrumento culturalmente apropiado. Estos hallazgos ilustran la importancia de utilizar instrumentos específicos para determinar disponibilidad de alimentos saludables, especialmente cuando los resultados se utilicen para apoyar el desarrollo de políticas alimentarias.

Palabras clave: NEMS S, ambiente alimentario, Latinos, políticas alimentarias

Recibido: 16 09 2016 Aceptado: 11 03 201

INTRODUCTION

Food patterns and consumption practices are intrinsic components of population groups across the world. Those dietary practices are influenced by the physical environment, particularly those products identified as edibles, but also by the cultural practices that define people. Extensive research indicates that food patterns play substantial roles in the causation and prevention of chronic, non communicable diseases (1) and that the food environment, including access to food outlets and the presence of healthy choices, is associated with eating behaviors (2, 3). It has been shown that shopping preferences are linked to obesity and that the lack of healthy food options in grocery stores leads to weight gain (4). Successful policies should also be part of a larger plan to change social norms (5). In response to this challenge, the Nutrition Environment Measures Survey for Stores (NEMS S) was developed in the first decade of the millennium as a well defined measurement tool to examine the availability of healthy food options in grocery and convenience stores in the United States (6). We refer to this original instrument as US NEMS S Cultural factors play a significant role in determining shopping preferences, as food related behavior is modified by culture (7, 8). Ethnic identity is positively correlated with consumption of culturally significant foods and negatively correlated with the consumption of ‘convenience’ or prepackaged foods (9). Stores targeted to specific ethnic groups, including Latinos, serve as important sites for the preservation of their homeland culture (10), including their food preferences.

Despite the significance of culture in shaping food preferences, current research lacks a culturally specific analysis of what drives food preferences, specifically for the growing Latino population, particularly recent arrivals of Central Americans (Guatemalans, Hondurans and Salvadorians) in the northeast region of the United States . The present study aimed to contribute with information to help to fill this gap in knowledge by assessing the applicability of the NEMS S survey modified for use in Guatemala (11) as compared to the original US NEMS S, which wa, both in its original version designed for the US population, and as modified for use in Guatemala (11). The site identified for this study was Somerville, a small city located north of Boston, state of Massachusetts.

The Guatemala NEMS S (GUA NEMS S) survey contained items more familiar in a Latino diet, including selected fruits and vegetables, canned beans and boxed fluid milk. Researchers believed that the conduct of the GUA NEMS S would result in a more thorough analysis of the availability of healthy and unhealthy foods in stores in Latino communities in the US be cause the items on the survey would match those being sold in these culturally specific stores.

The primary objective of this study was to test the GUA NEMS S to examine the food environment in a convenient, small sample of Latino stores, located in East Somerville, in which there is a rapidly growing Latino population, primarily of Central American origin. Secondarily, researchers also utilized the NEMS S surveys to assess the availability of healthy food options in the three Latino stores. The corresponding hypotheses were: 1) The foods found in the three Latino stores will apply more closely to the GUA NEMS S than the original survey created for US stores (US NEMS S); and 2) There will be a general lack of healthy food options in these small stores indicated by the results of the NEMS S surveys.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

1. ENUMERATION

Through enumeration of the study area (Eastern Massachusetts), researchers selected the city of East Somerville, for its urban location and large Latino population, particularly recent migrants of Central American origins. A list of food outlets was compiled from a previous study conducted in the area (12) and from the 2010 Somerville census data. This study focused only on grocery stores. Larger chain grocery stores were also eliminated because the Latino or “international” aisles were too small to compare to local stores directly targeted to the Latino population.

After the creation of an initial list, where 8 stores were identified, researchers visited the study area to narrow the store selection and to obtain permission from storeowners. A map of the East Somerville community was created using Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Food outlets were categorized using the system described in the NEMS online training (13). After enumerating and physically locating them, only 4 stores were identified as “Latino Stores”, from which three store managers agreed to participate in the study. The local Institutional Review Board approved this study, and owners or managers of the Latino stores gave in formed consent.

Finally, researchers created store layouts of the items sold in the three Latino stores and diagramed the floor plans.

2. UTILIzATION OF NEMS S

NEMS S was the tool used to quantify the availability of healthy food options in the three Latino grocery stores of study. Researchers completed the US NEMS S online training to become certified NEMS raters. Then they participated in the creation of the GUA NEMS S. This new survey was pilot tested in stores in Quetzaltenango, Guatemala, and proved ac curate as a modification for items included in the Guatemalan diet (14).

The US NEMS S measures the availability of foods each item. The categories include: milk, fruit, vegetables each item. The categories include: milk, fruit, vegetables, ground beef, hot dogs, frozen dinners, baked goods, beverages (soda/juice), bread, potato chips, and cereal. The GUA NEMS S included 13 categories, those from the original US NEMS, plus boxed milk and canned beans. Within the categories, the individual items added to the Guatemala survey were papaya, pineapple, and plums for fruit, and green beans, zucchini, chayote, guicoysquash, radishes and avocados for vegetables. These items were chosen to reflect the Guatemalan diet.

In the US NEMS S survey, there were 10 fruit, 10 vegetables, and 9 non produce healthy food items. Fruit and vegetable items were all considered healthy food options, and each additional category had regular and healthy options (e.g. whole milk vs. skim milk). Eleven healthy food options were added to the GUANEMS S, so the total number of healthy food items on the US NEMS S and GUA NEMS S surveys was 29 and 40 respectively. Table 1 lists items on each NEMS S version.

3. INTER RATER CONCORDANCE

Two researchers completed each of the NEMS S (US and Guatemala) in the three stores on one occasion per store. The inter rater correspondence of the items common to the US NEMS S and GUA NEMS S sur veys was calculated.

4. ANALYSIS OF FOOD ITEM AVAILABILITY

Pearson Chi Square tests were used to undertake four inquiries: 1. Inter survey comparison of the 29 common items: areas of interest were availability of healthier options, fruit, and vegetable items in the three Latino stores; 2. Inter store comparison of healthier op tions of combined surveys; the percentage of available non produce healthy food items (n=9) was calculated for each store and analysis was done to determine the differences in non produce healthy availability across stores; 3. Inter store comparison of fruits and vegeta bles of combined surveys: the percentage of available fruits (n=10) and vegetables (n=10) was calculated for each store and analysis was done to determine the dif ferences in fruit and vegetable availability in stores; and 4. Relative availability of additional items: For each instrument (US and GUA NEMS S), researchers compared the cumulative percent availability of he althy items.

RESULTS

1. STORE LAYOUT

The stores were small, with only one or two cash registers. All three stores had sections for many of the same items found in larger stores and supermarkets. Many of the sections, however, were limited or lacking certain items. There were some unique properties to the stores. Store 1 had a liquor sales outlet in an adjacent location, and Store 3 had a Money Gram® station, which allows immigrants to send remittances to their home countries. A lack of price labeling on the majority of food items was common to all three stores.

2. INTER RATER CONCORDANCE ON THE ITEMS OF THE US NEMS S VERSION

The inter rater concordance was 100% for the items of the US version common to both instruments when comparing the rater conducting store evaluation by the US NEMS S with the rater using the GUA NEMS S. Thus, the presence or absence of each of these items on the store shelves was identically reported by both raters for all three stores.

3. INTER STORE COMPARISON OF COMMON ITEMS BETWEEN SURVEYS

As there was 100% inter rater concordance between raters for the 29 common items, there was a redundant certainty of the status of these items across store sites. This allowed the analysis of all of the items (none were in dispute) for inter  store analysis. Table 2 (non produce items) and Table 3 (produce items) present the pooled results found in each store regarding the availability of items included in both, the US NEMS S and the GUA NEMS S.

Focusing on the non produce items (Table 2), all three stores had the following regular versions of index items: milk, baked goods, soda, juice, chips, and bread. All three also had the healthier beverage options - diet soda and 100% juice - in stock. Two out of three stores had skim milk, low sugar cereal, and whole wheat bread, on the healthier side, and regularly sweetened breakfast cereal. Only one store had frozen dinners and low fat baked goods available. Raters never found healthier versions of chips (baked) or frozen dinners (low fat), nor were ground beef or hotdogs found in either regular or healthier format.

4. INTER STORE COMPARISON OF HEALTHY OPTIONS OF THE US NEMS S ACROSS THE COMBINED SURVEYS

Focusing on the specific avai lability of the healthier options, a first examination of the core items was done (Table 2). For external comparability, a comparison of the core list of the 9 non produce items (with soda and juice now constituting a single category of beverages) was done across sites. The cumulative availability in Store 1 was 11.1%, in Store 2 was 44.4%, and in Store 3 was 55.6% (Table 2). By Chi square analysis, the differential availability of non produce items was not statistically significant (p=0.127). Store 1 had availability of 20% of the total 20 produce items, Store 2 had 65% and Store 3 had 70% (Table 3). By Chi square analysis, the differential availability, considering all 29 elements of the U.S. NEMS S, was highly statistically significant (p=0.002).

5. RELATIVE AVAILABILITY OF THE ADDITIONAL GUATEMALAN ITEMS AMONG THE THREE FOOD STORES

Four items in two contrast pairings (i.e. regular versus healthy comparison) were added to the GUA NEMS S to complement the US offering: boxed (UHT) whole milk, boxed skim milk, canned refried black beans and whole black beans. All stores had both the healthier and re gular option for black beans. Conversely, neither skim nor whole milk in the boxed presentation was found in any store visited.

Nine items were added to the GUA NEMS S, including three fruits: papaya, pineapple and plums, and six vegetables: green beans, zucchini, chayote, guicoy, radish and avocado (Table 3). Store 1 had none of the additional fruits. Store 2 had two of the three additional fruits and Store 3 had all three additional fruits (Table 3). With regard to the additional vegetable items, Store 1 had two of the six items; Stores 2 and 3 both had four of the six items (Table 3).

Despite the uneven contribution to fruits from the original list (n=10) and with the additions from Guatemala (n=3), a comparison across the total of three stores was done. Data was normalized by expressing them as the cumulative percentage availability from each separate origin. Because of the limited number (n=2) of the Guatemalan items in the regular items category, no comparisons were done with them.

Overall, the percentage availability of fruits in the three stores was 33.3% for the original list (n=10) and 55.7% for the modified (Guatemalan) list (n=13) (p = 0.660). The percentage availability across stores was also calculated for vegetables of the original list (n=10) versus the modified list (n=16). Overall, the percentage availability of vegetables from the original list was 70% and the availability of vegetable additions was 55.6% (p = 0.423) (Table 3). In summary, two of the three stores had at least one of the three added fruits available; two of the three stores had at least two of the six added vegetables available. All stores had canned black beans available.

DISCUSSION

1. INTER RATER CONCORDANCE Many studies have utilized the US NEMS S as a tool (13). Yet, there are few studies that have documented the performance of the US NEMS S within the United States, particularly in the Northeastern region. Of the three published studies that reported the instrument performance of the NEMS S, the inter reliability determined by kappa had range of 0.00 to 1.00 in one study to 0.75 to 0.95 to the narrowest range reported by Glanz et al from 0.83 to 1.00 (15, 16). Four studies report inter rater reliability by percent agreement that range from about 77% to 100% for two studies; and two studies have near perfect agreement (15, 16, 17). Com pared to these previous studies, the performance of the GUA NEMS S was consistent or exceeded that of the previous studies who have reported statistics on instrument performance.

The high inter rater concordance between NEMS S raters could be in part due to a couple of favorable conditions. In contrast from the assessment of the GUA NEMS S survey conducted in Guatemala (14), raters in this study had full cooperation and approval of store management. This allowed raters to thoroughly conduct the surveys instead of furtively scurrying to collect the data. Although desirable, these conditions are not characteristic of grocery stores, so future NEMS S raters should precede with caution. Rimkus et al aptly note that in study where raters are in the same supermarket simultaneously collecting data low inter rater reliability is unlikely given that both raters are exposed to the same supermarket environment at the same time (15).

2. HEALTHY FOOD AVAILABILITY ACROSS STORES

Results indicate a range of availability of healthy food items between the three stores. Although located in the same area, and providing their services to the same population, it was noticed that Store 1 was poorly stocked for healthy items, whereas Stores 2 and 3 were better stocked with Store 3 having a slight advantage. To date, there are few studies that report the availability of each US NEMS S item in detail rather than a composite healthy food score (16, 21). When com pared to these studies, there was substantially lower availability of baked chips, low fat baked goods, low fat beef, low fat hot dogs and any type of fruit. The availability of the other US NEMS S items found in this study was consistent with that previously reported.

3. PERFORMANCE OF THE GUATEMALAN ADAPTATION OF THE NEMS S

It becomes evident in appreciating the degree of homology (29 of 40 items in common) across the instruments and the imbalance in number of items added to the GUA NEMS S, that no strict comparison of performance of the two versions of the instruments can be made. This would require further development of comparably sized listings in which the availability of foods culturally preferred over the US options are substituted for some of those of the dominant culture in the US NEMS S. This new survey still needs to be developed. However, the relative performance of the GUA NEMS S can be examined by looking at the sale of certain milk, beans, fruits and vegetables with a certain Latino affinity, in addition to those that are reflective of the US culture. The relative performance of the GUA NEMS S can be made by comparing the overall number of healthy items identified by the US NEMS S. Across stores, the number of healthy items identified as available increased in the three stores: in Store 1 (9 vs. 12 items), in Store 2 (19 vs. 26 items) and Store 3 (21 vs. 29 items), respectively.

4. COMPARISON WITH NEMS S APPLICATIONS OUTSIDE OF THE DOMINANT U.S. CULTURE

The application of the NEMS S outside the US is limited (22, 24). In their 2014 review of the food environment literature, Anderson Steeves and coworkers identified as a main gap the paucity of studies in di verse settings, especially within developing countries (24). One study in Paraguay modified the NEMS S to study the Paraguayan food environment and found that healthy bread and dairy options were limited (22). Mar tins et al also modified the NEMS S to study food environments in Brazil by expanding upon the degree of food processing and its association with obesity (23). Therefore, the NEMS S designed by Martins et al does not include a “healthy comparison” for each regular item; and includes foods divided into three categories by degree of food processing (e.g. nuts in group one; oils in group two; and instant noodles in group three). The comparisons between the work reported here and these studies are limited, but highlight the importance of designing and adopting survey methods to study food environments.

5. STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The major strength of this study is the theme of availability of healthy food options in the context of acculturation occurring in migrant communities with established elements of the US society. In addition, both field investigators were certified by the NEMS S online training program, and had been deeply exposed to NEMS research in Guatemala. While neither of them, however, was a native speaker of Spanish nonpart of the Latino community, the storeowners and store personnel, however, were sufficiently bilingual to exclude linguistic communication barriers as a problem in the study. The orthodox NEMS S protocol calls for making the observations, when possible, without alerting the store personnel to the inspection. Under the study circumstances, however, it was considered necessary and appropriate to establish full transparency and obtain au theorization from the store owners. The achieved high inter rater scores may derive, in part, from the relaxed conditions in the inspection, without the distraction of the furtive nature of an unannounced survey. There was an imbalance in the evaluation, as only the 29 items in common with the US NEMS S instrument were assessed by both raters; how reproducible across observers is the recognition of the 11 additional food and beverage items important in Guatemalan cui sine couldn’t be reported. Moreover, the small overall number of items in the lists and their numerical as symmetry, with 29 items of established interest to the general US population and 40 of presumed relevance for the Latinos resident in the US, presented a problem in choice of a statistical approach for a strict parallel comparison across the instruments.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study highlight the importance of attending to the cultural characteristics of the diverse population groups that are more inclined to do their food shopping in small, ethnic stores such as those frequented by Latinos. In the middle of the current epidemic of obesity and non communicable diseases associated with eating pat terns, it is needed to encourage and support owners of Latino stores to offer more ethnic specific healthy options of the traditional Latino food products. Additionally, in the future, a second generation of culturally sensitive NESM S, that substitutes foods of a more tropical and Central American origin in the listing, rather than simply adding them on, will need to be developed and tested in a similar context and paradigm as the one that gave the cultural framework to this study.

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21. Andreyeva T, Blumenthal DM, Schwartz MB, Long MW, Brownell KD. Availability and prices of foods across stores and neighborhoods: the case of New Haven, Connecticut. Health Aff (Millwood) 2008;27(5):1381 1388.         [ Links ]

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23. Martins PA, Cremm EC, Leite FH, Maron LR, Sca gliusi FB, Oliveira MA. Validation of an adapted ver sion of the nutrition environment measurement tool for stores (NEMS S) in an urban area of Brazil. J Nutr Educ Behav 2013;45(6):785 792.         [ Links ]

24. Anderson Steeves, E, Martins PA, Gittelsohn J. Chan ging the Food Environment for Obesity Prevention: Key Gaps and Future Directions. J. Curr Obes Rep 2014;3(4):451 458.         [ Links ]

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COCOA AND CLASSICAL MUSIC: EFFECT ON ANXIETY AND ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY IN WISTAR RATS

Cacao y música clásica: efecto sobre ansiedad y actividad antioxidante en ratas Wistar

 

Anice Milbratz de Camargo, Henriquebonde, Débora Delwing Dal Magro, Daniela Delwing de Lima, Luciane Coutinho de Azevedo Campanella

Federal University of Santa Catarina (UFSC), Florianopolis, SC, Brazil. Regional University of Blumenau

(FURB), Blumenau, SC, Brazil. University of Joinville Region (UNIVILLE), Joinville, SC, Brazil.

SUMMARY

The effect of cocoa powder and subchronic exposure to classical music in Wistar rats behavior on an xiety evaluation tests and their antioxidant activity was evaluated. The animals were divided into four groups: control group (CG), cocoa powder group (CPG), music group (MG) and cocoa powder with music group (CPMG). During 15 days, CPG and CPMG received commercial non alkalized cocoa powder daily (66 mg total polyphenols / g of product, by oral gavage), while MG and CPMG were exposed to the music of Mozart (Serenade N.10 in B flat major for woodwinds and bass, "Gran partita" K.361 / 370a, Largo movement, 8:35 mi nutes long). At the end of the experiment, the animals were submitted to elevated plus maze (EPM) and open field (OF) tests, and serum analysis of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances index (TBA RS) and the activity of antioxidant enzymes catalase (CAT), superoxide dismu tase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH Px). Ani mals from MG and CPMG groups showed the highest total horizontal locomotion and more time spent at the central area and reduced immobility time at the OF. The TBA RS average of the treated groups were lower than the GC. The average activity of CAT was higher in CPMG than the others, and the average activity of SOD and GSH Px were higher only in CPG and CPMG. We concluded that the treatment with this classical music sho wed mild anxiolytic activity. Both treatments (cocoa and music) improved serum antioxidant status, but the peri pheral activity of different serum enzymes was mainly improved by the cocoa powder.

Key words: Cocoa powder, classical music, anxiety, elevated plus maze, open field, oxidative stress.

RESUMEN.

Se evaluó el efecto de cacao en polvo y la exposición subcrónica a la música clásica sobre el comportamiento de ratas Wistar en pruebas de evaluación de la ansiedad y su actividad antioxidante. Los animales fueron divididos en cuatro grupos: control (GC), cacao en polvo (GCP), música (GM) y cacao en polvo con música (GCPM). Durante 15 días, GCP y GCPM recibieron cacao en polvo comercial no alcalinizado diariamente (66 mg de polifenoles totales / g de producto, mediante una sonda nasogástrica), mientras que GM y GCPM fueron expuestos a la música de Mozart (Serenata N.10 em Si bemol mayor, "Gran Partita" K.361 / 370a, movimiento Largo, 8:35 minutos de du ración). Al final del experimento, los animales fueron some tidos a las pruebas de laberinto en cruz elevado (LCE) y de campo abierto (CA), y el análisis sérica del índice de sustancias reactivas al ácido tiobarbitúrico (TBA RS) y la actividad de las enzimas antioxidantes catalasa (CAT), superóxido dis mutasa (SOD) y glutatión peroxidasa (GSH Px). Los animales GM y GCPM mostraron la mayor locomoción horizontal, más tiempo en la zona central y un tiempo reducido de inmovilidad en el CA. El TBA RS promedio de los grupos tratados fue más bajo que el control. La actividad media de CAT fue mayor para GCPM que los otros, y la actividad media de la SOD y GSH Px fueron mayores sólo en GCP y GCPM. Concluimos que el tratamiento con esta música clásica mostró modesta ac tividad ansiolítica. Ambos tratamientos (cacao y música) mejoraron el estado antioxidante en suero, pero la actividad periférica de diferentes enzimas fue mejorada principalmente por acción del cacao.

Palabras clave: Cacao en polvo, música clásica, ansiedad, laberinto en cruz elevado, campo abierto, estrés oxidativo.

Recibido: 07 11 2016 Aceptado: 17 01 2017

INTRODUCTION

Anxiety is an unpleasant emotional state, asso ciated to ill being, discomfort, worry or fear of any defined or undefined future threat. Although it is a na tural reaction to stress, when it is excessive or out of pro portion to the stimulus, it is considered pathological (1). The occurrence of mental disorders, among them an xiety, have increased globally along the years. When analyzed as a group, mental and neurological disorders and also those recurring from substance abuse, these accounts for 13% of worldwide illnesses in the year of 2004 and are, today, the fastest growing health related issues. An amount of 16,3 trillion dollars is estimated to be spent on health problems associated to mental di sorders between the years of 2011 and 2030 (2). Additionally, aggravating this situation are the side effects of the drugs used to treat anxiety, such as: headache, nausea, blurred vision, tachycardia, dizziness, fainting, hypotension, hypertension, diarrhea, drowsiness, in somnia andv
omiting (3).

Faced with these challenges it is both, understanda ble and necessary, to broaden the range of treatment options or complement them, in areas such as phyto therapy, nutrition and diversified complementary the rapies (4). Some foods are of target interest and show good perspectives, but in order for them to be indicated for use, scientific comprobation is necessary.

Cocoa powder, a sub product of the Theobroma cacao L. fruit, shows high levels of bioactive com pounds, taking into consideration that it has a larger proportion of cocoa solids. When it is not alkalized du ring processing it shows significant amounts of polyphenols like flavonoids, epicatechins, catechins, proanthocyanidins and quercetin derivatives, and methylxanthines like theobromine and caffeine (5). Due to its composition, it offers many applications, such as: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antithromboge nic, fibrinolytic, immunomodulatory and antitumoral (6,7). Although still poorly explored, recent evidence has been found of the antidepressant and anxiolytic ef fects of cocoa. These were found in pre clinical studies through behavioral testing on animals (8 10) and more modestly on humans trials (11). These effects were as sociated to cocoa's complex composition, but mostly due polyphenols.

Music is a complementary therapy that has been used by humanity for thousands of years and scientific studies which indicate music as a therapeutic method for many conditions have emerged (4). Many studies describe that music causes metabolic alterations to the regulation of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis (HPA), the sympathetic nervous system and the im mune system, besides reducing anxiety (12,13). Clas sical music, particularly by Mozart, has demonstrated effects on cortisol levels (14,15), modulation of the HPA axis as well as the immune system (16) in hu mans. Experimental studies with the exposure to music from this particular composer showed reduction of hypertension (17) and anxiety isolatedly in rodents (18) and also when combined with medication (19).

Both, human and animal organisms, respond to physical and psychological stress through behavioral and physiological defenses (13). Growing evidences indicate that oxidative stress plays causal role in the development of anxious behavior on rats (20 23) and due to the fact that cocoa has conferred antioxidant ef fects and as well as classical music it may work as a potential anxiolytic, this study sought toverify the ef fects of an adjoint intervention of these two factors on Wistar rats behavior when submitted to the elevated plus maze (EPM) and also to the open field (OF) tests, anxiety evaluation models, associating it to the peripheral antioxidant defense.

METHODS

Animals

A total of 24 male genetically heterogeneous albino Wistar rats (Rattus norvegicus), 3 to 5 months and weighing 225 g on average (SD = 9 g), were obtained from the animal house of the Regional University of Blumenau. After arrival in thevivarium of the labora tory, these animals were housed individually in opaque plastic cage (0.5 x 0.3 x 0.15 m) with wood shaving bedding and wire mesh tops. They were housed under a standard (12 h/12 h light/dark; cycle lights on at 7:00 AM), in a temperature controlled environment (23 ± 1ºC), with a 50 dB background sound level, and 55±10% relative humidity. During the entire experi mental period, the animals received standard commer cial chow for rodents (Nuvital®) and filtered tap water ad libitum. The room was visited on an average of once every 2 or 3 days for cleaning cages, and to provide food and water. The animals were acclimated to the animal housing facilities for 1 week before the experi ments began. This study was approved by the univer sity Ethics Committee for Animal Research (CEUA) by the protocol No. 125/14. The experiments were per formed in compliance with the recommendations of thebrazilian Society of Neuroscience and Behavior (SBNeC), which arebased on the United States Natio nal Institutes of Health Guide for Care and Use of La boratory Animals.

Treatment

The animals were divided into four groups: control group (CG), cocoa powder group (CPG), music group (MG) and cocoa powder with music group (CPMG); each comprising six animals. During the intervention period, which lasted 15 days, the animals of CPG and CPMG groups received once a day, between 12:00 and 1:00 PM daily, non alkalized cocoa powder solubili zed in water (by oral gavage). The commercial non alkalized cocoa powder (natural) (66 mg total polyphenols / g of product) was purchased from Brazilcoa® and has its origins in thebrazilian states of Bahia, Espírito Santo and Rondônia. Each animal re ceived 2.5 mL of solution containing 134 mg of cocoa powder / kg of animal weight, diluted in water at a ratio of 0.03 g: 2.47 mL (cocoa powder : water). The solution was daily prepared immediately prior to ad ministration and with the aid of a magnetic stirrer at 625 rpm (Quimis® model Q261 2) and a precision ba lance (Marte Científica® model AS1000). The solution contains about 8.86 mg total polyphenols / kg body weight, the minimal dose at which changes were observed in behavioral tests (8). The CG and MG ani mal groups received 2.5 mL of placebo (by oral gavage) containing corn starch in replacement of the cocoa powder. The chemical composition of both so lutions is presented in Table 1. Corn starch was used as placebo to ensure that the infusion time (gavage) was the same for control and treatment groups, giving density to the solution. This was an important consi deration as the gavage procedure can generate cause stress to the animals.

The rats of MG and CPMG groups were exposed to classical music for 5 hours / day between 1:00 and 6:00 PM, during the 15 days of trial. Mozart's music (Serenade N.10 in B flat major for woodwinds and bass, "Gran partita" K.361 / 370a, Largo movement, 8:35 minutes long) was continuous and repeated in a CD player (compact disc) (19). The speaker had a fre quency range of 100 16000 Hz and the music room had a sound level of 65 75 dB. The silent room where the animals of CG and CPG groups stayed had no music and its sound level was 50 dB (ambient noise).

Body weight and food intake

The animals body weight was measured on the first and last day of the intervention and food consumption was measured three times a week on alternate days and then, the weekly average was calculated. In both pro cedures, a precision scale was used (Marte Científica® model AS1000).

Behavioral tests

On the last day of intervention all animals were in dividually subjected to the EPM and OF tests in a sound isolated room, during the light phase of the cycle (between 1:00 and 4:00 PM). To minimize possible cir cadian influences, the experimental and control observations were alternated. The observer stayed in the same room approximately one meter away from each apparatus and recorded the tests with a video camera (Panasonic® PV GS150 model) for later behavioral analysis (24,25). The tests were con ducted under dim red light (44 lux).

Elevated plus maze test

The apparatus consisted of two open arms (0.5 x 0.1 m) and two closed arms (0.5 x 0.1 x 0.4 m) arranged such that the two arms of each type were op posite to each other, with a central plat form (0.1 x 0.1 m). The height of the maze was 0.5 m. The animals were ex posed for 5 min to the red light in their own home cages before the testing pro cedure. They were then individually placed on the central platform of the elevated plus maze facing an open arm. During a 5 min test period the animal behavior was recorded and the follo wing parameters were registered: time spent in open arms and the percentage of time spent in the open arms relative to the total time in the arms; number of entries into the open arms; percentage of open arm entries compared to total entries; time spent in the closed arms; number of entries into the closed arms and risk assessment (25). Risk assessment is a measure that accounts for the time spent head dipping (i.e., exploratory movements of the head/and shoulders over the side of the maze) and in a stretched attend pos ture (i.e., exploratory posture in which thebody is stret ched forward and then retracted to the original position without any forward locomotion). The measures that reflect anxiety likebehavior in this test are the entries into the open arms vs. closed arms and time spent on the open arms vs. closed arms. The anxiety behavior in this test is triggered by the high of the maze which evoke a greater strength of fear. The fear induces an avoidancebehavior, which in turn makes the animals prefer the closed arms (25). We also included etholo gically derived measures related to the defensive pat tern of risk assessment behavior, which has been shown to bevery sensitive to changes in anxiety (19, 26).

Open field test

The OF consisted of a black uncovered circular box (0.6 m diameter, 0.50 m height). Each rat was placed in the central area and allowed to freely explore the ap paratus for 5 min, being filmed during this time. Sub sequently we recorded the total ambulation time (i.e., movement from one location to another); total horizon tal locomotion, estimated by the number of squares crossed (every timeboth hind paws entered one square, a crossing was recorded); peripheral area ambulation time; peripheral area crossings; central area ambulation time; percentage of time spent in central area compa red to total ambulation time; crossings made to the cen ter of the field and percentage of crossings made to the center of the field in relation to total horizontal loco motion. Time spent immobile (i.e., completely immo bile), time spent rearing (the rat stood on its hind paws with its body at greater than a 45° angle to the floor) and time spent grooming (i.e., repetitive movements of the front paws or mouth on the fur) were also recorded. The measures that reflect anxiety likebehavior in this test are shorter horizontal locomotion (number of cros sings); greater time spent in the peripheral area; redu ced ambulation time; reduced central area ambulation time; and greater immobility time. The anxiety behavior in this test is triggered by the fact that it is an in dividual testing (the animal is apart from its group) and the area is very large in relation to the animal’s bree ding or natural environment, which is why they prefer the peripheral area, close to the wall. Anxiolytic treat ments decrease the stress induced inhibition of explo ratory behavior (24).

Antioxidant activity analysis

At the end of the experiments the animals were sacrificed by decapitation with guillotine (Insight® model EB271). Erythrocytes and plasma were prepared from wholeblood samples obtained from the rats. Wholeblood was collected and transferred to heparinized tubes for erythrocyte separation. Blood samples were centrifuged at 1,000×g (Luguimac® model LC 10), and plasma was removed by aspiration and frozen at – 80 °C until determination of thiobarbituric acid re active substances (TBA RS). Erythrocytes were was hed three times with cold saline solution (0.153 mol/L sodium chloride). Lysates were prepared by the addi tion of 1 mL of distilled water to 100 μL of washed erythrocytes and frozen at – 80 °C until determination of the antioxidant enzyme activities. For antioxidant enzyme activity determination, erythrocytes were fro zen and thawed three times and centrifuged at 13,500×g for 10 minutes. The supernatant was diluted in order to contain approximately 0.5 mg / mL of pro tein. TBA RS was measured following Ohkawa et al. method (27) and was determined by the absorbance in spectrophotometer (Metrolab® model 325 DB) at 535 nm. The results were expressed as nanomole of malon dialdehyde formed per milligram of protein. Catalase activity assay (CAT) was determined according Aebi method (28). Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) disappea rance was continuously monitored with a spectropho tometer at 240 nm for 90 seconds. One unit of the enzyme is defined as 1 μmol of H2O2 consumed per minute, and the specific activity is reported as units (U) per mg of protein. Glutathione peroxidase activity assay (GSH Px) was determined by the method of Wendel (29), with some modifications. Tert butylhy droperoxide was used as substrate. Nicotinamide ade nine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) disappearance was continuously monitored with a spectrophotometer at 340 nm for 4 minutes. One GSH Px unit is defined as 1 μmol of NADPH consumed per minute, and spe cific activity is reported as units per mg of protein. Su peroxide dismutase assay (SOD) was determined by the pyrogallol auto oxidation method, as described by Marklund (30). The self oxidation of pyrogallol was continuously monitored with a spectrophotometer at 420 nm. The specific activity was expressed as unit per mg of protein. Protein determination was performed by the method of Lowry et al. (31), using bovine serum albumin as the standard.

Statistical analysis

The variables were expressed as means and stan dard deviations. The determination of the differences between the experimental groups was performed using analysis ofv
ariance (ANOVA), two tailed (food intake and body weight) and one tailed (other variables), with Tukey Kramer post test (for parametric data) or Krus kal Wallis test (for non parametric data). The Normality of variable distribution was assessed by Kolmogorov Smirnov test. All tests were performed with the software Statistic (StatSoft Inc®, version 6.0). Differences with p <0.05 were considered significant.

RESULTS

Effects of treatment on body weight and food intake

No significant alterations were observed in body weight, percentage of gained weight and weekly food intake. The food intake of the first and second weeks of trial did not differ from each other (data not shown).

Effects of treatment on behavior in the EPM and OF

No statistical differences were observed between groups in the parameters analyzed in the EPM test. The ANOVA revealed significant differences for some of the OF test variables (table 2). A larger number of peripheral crossings was verified for the CPMG and MG groups when compared to CG (p=0,035), even though the ambulation time in the peripheral area did not differ among the groups (p=0,161). Likewise, ani mals of CPMG and MG groups spent more time am bulating in the central area of the field than CPG and CG (p=0,003). The animals exposed to music and also those with the combination of music and cocoa showed higher percentage of time ambulating in the central area regarding the total ambulation time in relation to CPG and CG (p=0,007). Nevertheless, the number of crossings made to the central area did not differ bet ween the animals (p=0,061). The total horizontal loco motion (total number of crossings) performed by the CPMG and MG groups was greater than CG (p=0,025), and the average of this locomotion measure traveled by CPG was statistically the same as CG. The CPMG showed a total ambulation time higher than the GC group while the CPG and MG groups showed ave rage values equal to control (p=0,028). Considering the ethological measures analyzed, a significant decrease of immobility time was found in CPMG and MG groups when compared to the CG (F = 4,35; p=0,016) (Figure 1).

Effects of treatment on antioxidant serum activity

Serum concentrations of antioxidant markers and oxidative damage analysis at the end of the experiment (Figure 2) revealed that averages of TBA RS were inferior for the animals of CPMG, CPG and MG groups (F = 50,45; p<0,001) (Figure 2A). As to enzymatic activity, the average ac tivity of CAT was statistically superior for the CPMG group when compared to all the other groups (F= 6,73; p=0,002) (Figure 2B). The averages of GSH Px (F= 11,95; p<0,001) (Figure 2C) and SOD (F= 19,82; p<0,001) (Figure 2D) were superior for the CPMG and CPG groups when compared to the control.

DISCUSSION

In this study, the cocoa treatment as sociated or not to classical music did not cause alterations in body weight gain or animal food intake. Likewise, other authors did not verify changes to these variables when the same dose of polyphenols used in this study were administered (8,86 mg/kg) through cocoa polyphenolic extract (8). The cocoa mass treatment (250 mg/kg weight/day) also did not show al terations in body weight (10).

Regarding the EPM test, this study differs from one of our previous works using Mozart music in combina tion with medication (simvastatin), in which we observed an adjuvant effect of the interventions in reducing anxiety (19). A recent study published in pertinent lite rature may explain such differences in these results. Ac cording to Attoui et al. (18), when the animals were exposed to auditory stress (105 dB) and/or to predator odor for 10 minutes/day, during 7 days, associated to Mozart’s music 10 minutes before the EPM test, there was a reversion in the anxiety behavior and also a re duction in the levels of the adrenocorticotropic hor mone (ACTH) of the stressed rats, independent to the kind of stress to which they were submitted. It is believed that as the animals in this present study were not exposed to stress stimuli, there was no hormonal dere gulation to be reverted by the treatment with music, if we consider this the mechanism of action. However, it is relevant to emphasize that there were significant dif ferences in the OF test variables; an anxiety behavior model with different peculiarities regarding action me chanisms. Therefore, the necessity of applying not only one paradigm to evaluate stress or emotional anxiety to behavior studies is reinforced. During OF testing a new environment is used to determine general anxiolytic be havior and mobility levels in this paradigm serve as fi gures for a similar state of anxiety in rats, possessing sensitivity to serotonergic and benzodiazepine routes of action (acting on the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA  Gamma Aminobutyric acid) (24).

Either as a separate treatment or associated with cocoa powder, the classical music treatment promoted an increase in the total horizontal locomotion in the OF and also the horizontal peripheral locomotion, but did not affect the time spent in this region. It is also impor tant to highlight that both treatments significantly in creased the time spent in the central area of the field, and also the percentage of time spent in this area when compared to total ambulation time, which represents a rupture in the natural tendency of the rodents of moving to the peripheral area (24). In agreement to these results, it was found that the CPMG and MG groups had significant reduction in immobility time, when compared to CG.

Taking into account the results seen in the OF test and that we saw no differences in the animals behavior at the EPM, it is possible to indicate a mild anxiolytic effect associated with an exploratory activity stimula tion, because as said before, anxiolytic treatments de crease the stress induced inhibition of exploratory behavior at the OF (24). It is believed that this effect may be attributed mainly to classical music exposition, considering the results from CPMG and MG groups were similar, with exception to the total ambulation time (higher than the control group only in the associa ted treatment of cocoa powder and classical music). Si milar results were found in a study in which classical music in combination with simvastatin increased the ambulation time and total horizontal locomotion, also reducing the animal’s immobility time (19).

There isn't a consensus regarding the appreciation of music by animals, however this determination is not necessary, taking into account that many mechanisms used to test its effect on anxiety and stress have already been reported in the literature. Mozart's music increases dopamine (excitatory neurotransmitter) synthesis in thebrain. This is due to its high frequency accentuated sounds (4000 a 16000 Hz) compared to other classical music composers, endowing rats with greater neu rophysiologic effects, confirmed through alterations in autonomic responses such as blood pressure (17). Fur thermore, music also significantly activates various subcortical regions in humans, including the nucleus accumbens (NAc, cerebral area that plays a significant role in processing of motivation, pleasure, reward and reinforcement), the ventral tegmental area (VTA, processes reward when it receives dopamine) and the hypothalamus (region of thebrain that modulates autonomous responses such as cardiac frequency and bre athing, which alter when exposed to pleasant musical sounds). The elevated dopamine release in the vTA and NAc may be the neurochemical mechanism which can explain the reward feelings brought by music (16, 32). The stimulus of structures such as the amygdala, cor tex, hippocampus and hypothalamus by music and the way thebrain's attention channels are affected by soo thing auditory stimuli in a significant and distractive manner are also mentioned explanations (13). In addition to the previous consideration, a musical approach has shown regulatory effects on the HPA axis, by reducing the levels of ACTH in stressed rats (18), reducing salivary cortisol levels in humans under pre competition stress (15), as well as in the absence of stress (14). Stress shows consequences such as high blood pressure and endocrinal responses which lead to specific hormone release and also the activation of the sympathetic nervous system for the "fight or flight" res ponse, besides an immune response, showing alteration in markers such as Immunoglobulin A, interleukins (IL) 1,6 and 10 (13). The "fight or flight" response may be triggered by mental activity such as anxiety, stress, depression and feelings of despair. As previously dis cussed, music reduces stressful and anxious behavior (13) and it eases some of these systemic markings (not only the ACTH and cortisol), with the reduction of epi nephrine and IL 6 and also the elevation of the growth hormone (GH) in humans. It appears that this effect of music concerns neuroendocrine immune routes of ac tion (12,16).

In this study, besides the fact that the cocoa powder treatment did not provoke a statistically significant mo dification in animal behavior, it is important to note that, even not significantly different of control, it in creased the average of peripheral crossings as well as the total ambulation time reducing the animal's time of immobility. It is noteworthy that only the group which received cocoa powder in association with music de monstrated a greater total ambulation time compared to the control group. It is possible that there may havebeen an adjuvant effect between the treatments, which did not manifest statistically when they wereboth con ducted in an isolated manner. Pertaining the usage of the cocoa powder, aspects such as thebioavailability of the polyphenolic compounds, compromised by the food matrix, interaction with diet constituents, genetic factors, microbiota metabolism and the enzymatic ac tivity of the colon (7) should be taken into account, since the intake of the same dosage of total cocoa poly phenols caused behavioral alterations to rats in a previous study (8).

The use of cocoa in anxiety reduction is supported by the literature invarious courses of action. Because its bioactive compounds are elevated, it is believed that there may be a synergetic action between the compo nents in the production of the anxiolytic effect (10). Cocoa polyphenols havebeen associated to elevation in the monoaminergic neurotransmitters, similarly to antidepressant drugs. As evidenced in the work of Ya mada et al. (10) when chronically administered (14 days), the cocoa mass (100 mg/ kg weight) led to a ten dency, not significant, of increase in the total distance traveled in the OF (similar to the results in this study), a behavior which was associated to greater concentra tion of serotonin in the cortex, hippocampus and amyg dala. Messaoudi et al. (8) verified a smaller time of immobility of the animals submitted to forced swimming test when using cocoa polyphenol extract (24 mg/kg weight) for 14 days, however, no changes in the OF test. Such behavioral effect has been suggested to the quercetin (flavonoid), for acting in a similar manner to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors drugs such as tricyclic antidepressant.

Considering the existence of a direct correlation between oxidative stress and anxiety, thebrain's high susceptibility to oxidative stress and the already proven antioxidant efficiency of cocoa, it is possible that this may also be a way of reducing anxiety. When Sabogal Guaquetá et al. (9) administered quercetin (flavonoid present in cocoa) to rats (25 mg / kg), they were able to reverse the main histopathological markers of cog nitive and emotional dysfunction, besides demonstra ting anxious behavior reduction in the EPM test. Evidences that oxidative stress plays a causal role in the development of anxious behavior in rats has in creased, as well as the evidences that an antioxidant in tervention may revert such effects (23). The gene expression of antioxidant enzymes is different for an xious and non anxious rats in specific cerebral regions (20), just as oxidative stress provokes an imbalance to antioxidant enzyme activity in the hippocampus asso ciated to the anxious behavior in rats during the OF test (21). The same imbalance to the antioxidant defense was verified beyond the CNS, in many psychiatric di sorders (among which, anxiety) (22). In spite of the fact that cocoa has an already established role in antioxidant defense improvement, the same does not apply to clas sical music, once no work in the literature has directly evaluated peripheral antioxidant activity with this tre atment, within our knowledge.

In this study, all interventions, either associated or isolated, provoked a reduction to TBA RS levels in serum when compared to the control group (Figure 2A). The malondialdehyde, a secondary product of lipid peroxidation, reacts to the TBA and is measured colorimetrically through the TBA RS test (27). It was found that the cocoa powder, Mozart’s music and its as sociation reduced plasmatic lipid damage. Cocoa pow der itself contribute to a reduction in LDL cholesterol and the suppression of oxidized LDL in humans (6). The efficiency with which the polyphenols are incor porated to LDL surface, thus increasing the resistance of this particle to both oxygen radicals and chelating transitional metal ions, is an exogenous antioxidant me chanism suggested for such compounds (6). Furthermore, endogenous antioxidant activity was also altered by treatments with cocoa powder and clas sical music, verified through the increase of enzymatic activity in serum. The average activity of the CAT enzyme was statistically superior only for the group treated with cocoa powder and concurrently exposed to music (Figure 2B). The average activity of the GSH Px (Figure 2C) and the SOD (Figure 2D) enzymes were superior for the groups CPMG and CPG when compared to the others, which demonstrates an inhe rent effect of the cocoa powder. A cocoa powder enri ched diet elevated SOD and CAT activity in young rats in a work of Ramiro Puig et al. (33). Considering that the increase in CAT activity in our study was exclusive to the CPMG group, the existence of a common or synergetic mechanism between the interventions (cocoa and classical music) is probablebut still unex plored by science. In addition to this, the treatment with music reduced lipid peroxidation of the animals, pro bably through indirect mechanisms. A possible path way is the modulation of the HPA axis activity induced by Mozart’s music, because this has multiple systemic effects on stress markers (13) and thebalancebetween oxidation and antioxidation is affected by signs of the neuroendocrine stress response system (34).

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we concluded that the cocoa powder, in the adopted dosage and used isolated, did not cause significant changes to animal behavior. Nevertheless, it did infer a tendency to a mild anxiolysis effect when combined to Mozart’s classical music. The treatment with classical music by itself did demonstrate a mild anxiolytic effect. Both treatments (cocoa powder and classical music) improved the serum antioxidant status. In view of the above, it is believed that the constituents of cocoa powder (specially the polyphenols) and Mo zart’s classical music may have acted together on the improvement of the antioxidant response and, possibly through this, on the anxious behavior of rats. This field of work needs further investigation in order to investi gate the correlation between oxidative stress and an xiety. A larger dose of cocoa is recommended in order to consider thebioavailability of the polyphenolic com pounds in the food matrix. Morebehavioral tests and also verification of antioxidant activity in structures of the central nervous system are recommended.

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Recibido: 07 11 2016 Aceptado: 17 01 2017

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Crescimento alcançado e estado nutricional de escolares

Jane Laner Cardoso, Adriana Nishimoto Kinoshita, Thiele de Cássia Libardoni, Viviane Gabriela Nascimento, Claudio Leone.

Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina. Universidade Paulista. Universidade de São Paulo. Brazil

RESUMO.

O aumento da prevalência do excesso de peso é observado em todas as idades, inclusive nos países em desenvolvimento. O objetivo foi avaliar o crescimento al cançado e o estado nutricional de crianças de duas gerações de escolares: uma no início da idade escolar e outra na tran sição para a adolescência. A análise de amostra, com 1082 crianças, divididas em dois grupos de idade, um grupo de 6 e 7 anos (G1) e o outro de 9 e 10 anos (G2), do Ensino Fundamental da Rede Pública de Florianópolis. Para clas sificação do estado nutricional dos escolares utilizou-se o parâmetro escore z de IMC (zIMC), para crianças com cinco anos e mais (OMS 2007). Foram realizadas análises de tendência central, dispersão e proporções. Os resultados foram: idade média de G1 e G2 foi respectivamente de 6,5 anos, desvio padrão (dp) de 0,31, e de 9,6 anos (dp= 0,26); média de estatura (E) da amostra (escore z de E: 0,25, dp= 1,09) foi superior à do referencial; prevalência de excesso de peso (sobrepeso, obesidade e obesidade grave, juntos) foi de 42,5%. A distribuição dos escolares segundo escore z de IMC, mostrou desvio para a direita, com uma média de zIMC de 0,78 e dp=1,32 (IC95% 0,69 a 0,85), sem di ferença estatística entre G1 e G2. Em conclusão, os esco lares apresentavam em 2012, crescimento adequado de estatura concomitantemente à ausência de desnutrição e a uma prevalência bastante elevada de excesso de peso, o que pode ser atribuído a uma etapa avançada de Transição Nu tricional.

Palavras chaves: Estado nutricional, crescimento, crian ças, escolares, obesidade, transição nutricional.

Attained growth and nutritional status of schoolchildren

SUMMARY.

 

. The increasing prevalence of obesity is oc curring in all ages, including in developing countries. The objective was to evaluate the achieved growth and nutritio nal status of two groups of schoolchildren from public scho ols: one at the beginning of school age and another in the transition to adolescence. The analysis of sample with 1082 children, divided into two groups according to the age, a group of 6 and 7 years (G1) and the other with 9 and 10 years (G2), from the public elementary schools of Floriano polis. For nutritional status classification of schoolchildren used the parameter z score of BMI (zBMI,) for children with five years and older (WHO 2007). Measures of central ten dency, dispersion and proportions based data analysis. The results were: the average age of G1 and G2 was respectively of 6.5 years (SD= 0.31), and 9.6 years (SD= 0.26); average of attainted growth (z score of height to age - H/A) of the sample (H/A: 0.25, SD= 1.09) was above the benchmark; the prevalence of overweight (overweight, obesity and se vere obesity together) was 42.5%. The z score of BMI dis tribution showed a deviation to the right, with an average of 0.78 and positive z score a SD = 1.32 (95% CI 0.69 to 0.85), without statistical difference between G1 and G2. In con clusion, the schoolchildren showed in 2012 appropriate height growth concomitantly to the absence of malnutrition and a very high prevalence of excess weight, which can re present a late stage of Nutritional Transition.

Key words: Nutritional status, growth, children, students, obesity, nutritional transition.

INTRODUÇÃO

A obesidade foi considerada a epidemia do século XXI pela Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS). O aumento de sua prevalência está sendo observado em todas as faixas etárias, especialmente, nos países em desenvolvimento, caracterizando um importante pro blema de saúde pública, inclusive em crianças (1,2).

O excesso de peso na infância vem aumentando, tanto em países desenvolvidos quanto em desenvolvi mento, nos diferentes níveis socioeconômicos. Estima se que, no mundo, mais de 22 milhões de crianças menores de cinco anos sejam obesas, e que uma em cada dez crianças tenha excesso de peso (3).

Dentre as causas de obesidade estão o fácil acesso aos alimentos de alta densidade energética, a exposição quantidades de gordura, sal e açúcar, embalados ou vendidos em grandes porções. A esses problemas de alimentação se associa o aumento do sedentarismo, de corrente de um maior acesso aos meios de transporte e do aumento de atividades de lazer passivas, como a TV e jogos de computador. Todos esses fatores são citados como motivos para a importante elevação da prevalên cia da obesidade que vem sendo descrita desde o século passado (4,5).

Além disso, tem sido evidenciado que um cresci mento inadequado, intrauterino e/ou na primeira infân cia, poderia predispor ao excesso de peso, sendo que a promoção de um crescimento adequado contribuiria para reduções substanciais na incidência de alterações cardiovasculares relacionadas à obesidade (6). Entre outros fatores relacionados à obesidade está, por exemplo, a predisposição genética. Entretanto as proporções epidêmicas que essa condição vem apre sentando sugere que o ambiente desempenha um papel primordial no aumento da prevalência do excesso de peso como um todo (5).

As transformações sucessivas nos determinantes so ciais ocorridas no Brasil nas três últimas décadas, com o crescimento da renda, a industrialização e mecaniza ção da produção, a urbanização, o maior acesso a ali mentos em geral, incluindo os processados, e a globalização de hábitos, estes nem sempre muito sau dáveis, produziram uma transição nutricional rápida, expondo cada vez mais a população ao risco de doen ças crônicas (7).

A obesidade infantil é um importante fator de risco para a obesidade na idade adulta, e as crianças obesas tendem a ser mais altas do que seus pares com peso normal. Alguns estudos mostram que esse crescimento alcançado elevado não impede que as crianças se tor nem adultos obesos. Alertam que os médicos devem reconhecer o risco de excesso de peso corporal em todas as crianças que têm um IMC elevado, e dar es pecial atenção para aquelas que são altas, porque a sua altura na infância não irá protegê-los do ganho de peso posterior e IMC elevado na idade adulta (8,9). Como Florianópolis, é considerada a capital com mais alta qualidade de vida e a terceira melhor cidade do País para se viver (IDH de 0,847) e que possue pro gramas especiais para manter o cuidado de saúde de suas crianças e, que praticamente 100% delas se en contram na escola, particularmente nas escolas públi cas, optou-se por verificar o perfil epidemiológico do crescimento alcançado e do estado nutricional dos es colares dessa cidade, considerando que estudo possa se aplicar a outras cidades brasileiras que também tenham melhores condições de vida (10).

MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS

Foram coletados dados de 1082 crianças, divididas em dois grupos de acordo com a faixa etária, um grupo de crianças de 6 e 7 anos (Grupo1 - G1) e o outro grupo com crianças de 9 e 10 anos (Grupo2 - G2), do Ensino Fundamental I, de todas as Escolas Municipais e Esta duais, da Rede Pública de Ensino de Florianópolis, identificados a partir das listagens de frequência das classes das escolas. A coleta de dados ocorreu no pri meiro semestre do ano letivo de 2012 e foi realizada nas próprias escolas.

Buscando discriminar uma diferença entre os dois grupos de idade de pelo menos 1/4 de desvio padrão na mediana de escore z do índice de Massa Corporal (zIMC), para um poder de teste de 80% e um α de 5% estimou-se ser necessário um número mínimo de 250 crianças em cada grupo de idade e para cada sexo. A amostragem foi realizada por conglomerados, de maneira probabilística e aleatória, a partir da listagem das classes dos escolares. As classes (unidade amostral) foram sorteadas de maneira sequencial até que o lote amostral estimado de 250 crianças para cada idade e sexo estivesse completo.

Para avaliação do peso utilizou-se balança digital da marca CADENCE® Modelo Bal150 (Cachoeira do Sul, RS - Brasil), devidamente calibrada, com capaci dade para 150 kg e subdivisões de 100 gramas, e o re gistro dos valores foi feito até uma casa decimal. Os escolares foram pesados com mínimo de roupa possí vel (somente com calça e camiseta) e descalços, sendo posicionados em pé sobre a plataforma da balança com o peso do corpo igualmente distribuído entre os pés, os braços caídos ao longo do corpo e olhando para frente (11).

Para aferição da estatura utilizou-se um estadiôme tro da marca WISO® fixado à parede, graduado em centímetros , com precisão de uma casa decimal (mm). Os escolares foram medidos eretos, descalços, em po sição ortotática, com o plano de Frankfurt da cabeça horizontalizado, joelhos esticados, pés juntos, braços estendidos ao longo do corpo e com calcanhares, panturrilha, glúteos, omoplatas e dorso da cabeça, manti dos em contato com a superfície plana da parede. Após posicionar o escolar firmemente, deslocou-se a haste móvel do estadiômetro até a parte superior da cabeça e, a medida foi registrada em milímetro (11).

Os valores mensurados de peso e estatura foram transformados em escore z, com base nos valores do referencial da OMS de 200723. Para classificação do estado nutricional dos escolares utilizou-se o parâme tro escore z de IMC (zIMC), segundo o mesmo refe rencial, utilizando as curvas para crianças com cinco anos e mais (12).

A classificação do estado nutricional dos escolares foi feita de acordo com os pontos de corte propostos pelo Ministério da Saúde e OMS para o zIMC (13). Para análise estatística utilizou-se os Softwares SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) versão 15.0, MedCalc versão 12.1.4.0 e GraphPad Prism 5, versão 5.04. Foram calculadas fre quências, proporções, médias, desvios padrão e curvas de distribuição. As comparações foram realizadas a partir dos parâmetros de tendência central, dispersão e proporções, pelos testes: t de Student (Mann-Whitney para distribuições não normais), análise de variância (teste de Kruskal-Wallis para distri buições não normais), Qui-quadrado (  2).

Foram excluídas do estudo as crianças cujos pais e ou responsáveis se negaram a par ticipar do estudo e apresentaram problemas mórbidos que sabidamente têm influência no crescimento, não relacionados diretamente à sua condição nutricional. Foram excluídas 4 crianças: 2 postadoras de síndrome genético, uma com hipotireiodismo e uma nefropata.

A realização deste estudo obedeceu aos princípios éticos para pesquisas com seres hu manos, conforme resolução CNS 196/96, e foi aprovado pelo Comitê de ética em Pesquisa da Faculdade de Saúde Pública da Universi dade de São Paulo e, não apresenta conflito de interesses.

RESULTADOS

A idade média do G1 foi de 6,5 anos, des vio padrão (dp) de 0,31, e do G2 de 9,6 anos com dp de 0,26. Dos escolares da amostra, 50,5% eram do sexo masculino. (Tabela 1)

No conjunto, a média do escore z de estatura foi 0,25 (dp = 1,09), com diferença estatisticamente signi ficante quando comparada com a média do referencial da OMS (p<0,0001)

Os escores z de estatura dos grupos G1 e G2 foram iguais, respectivamente de zE/I= 0,25 (dp1,08) e zE/I= 0,25 (dp=1,11), p=0,9898 (estatisticamente não signi ficante).

A média de escore z de peso foi maior entre os me ninos (0,79, dp=1,26) em comparação com as meninas (0,64, dp= 1,19), estatisticamente significante (p = 0,047).

A curva de distribuição dos escolares segundo es core z de IMC, mostra desvio para a direita, com uma média de escore z positiva de 0,78 (dp=1,32) e IC95% 0,69 a 0,85. (Figura 2)

Entretanto esses valores médios de zIMC dos dois grupos de idade (G1 e G2) apresentam diferenças es taticamente significantes diferentes (p<0,0001), com valores médios de seus referenciais por idade. A comparação da distribuição em escore z de IMC dos grupos G1, com zIMC= 0,76 (dp 1,31), e G2, com zIMC= 0,80 (dp 1,33), não mostrou diferença estatis ticamente significante (p=0,6209). A prevalência de excesso de peso dos escolares es tudados (sobrepeso, obesidade e obesidade grave junto) foi de 42,5% (460/1082). Somente a análise da preva lência de obesidade grave por sexo mostrou diferença estatisticamente significante (p<0,05), sendo mais ele vada entre os meninos (Tabela 2).

DISCUSSÃO

Quanto ao crescimento estatural alcançado, os es colares aos 6 anos de idade, apresen tam uma estatura adequada, inclusive em média tendendo a ser superior à proposta pelo referencial da OMS. Esta tendência de crescimento ade quado é a mesma inclusive entre os escolares mais velhos, próximos da idade de início da puberdade (12).

No que diz respeito ao estado nu tricional, verificou-se que a prevalên cia de excesso de peso (sobrepeso, obesidade e obesidade grave) foi 42,5%, muito elevada. A análise em função da idade não mostrou dife rença nos escores z de IMC, com au mento semelhante nas frequências de valores mais elevados de z de IMC em ambos os grupos de idade.

A análise por sexo revelou dife rença apenas na prevalência de obe sidade grave, que foi 2,1 vezes maior entre os meninos.

A prevalência de magreza e a ma greza acentuada somada foram meno res que 2,0%. Essa proporção é inferior à esperada na distribuição de referência para as populações supos tamente normais, o que pode signifi car que entre os escolares, se houver desnutrição, esta condição, por sua frequência, não é mais um importante problema de saúde pública.

O conjunto desses valores revela um crescimento adequado em estatura, uma diminuição acentuada da desnutrição aliados a um aumento importante da pre valência de excesso de peso, o que caracteriza a pre sença de uma fase adiantada de transição nutricional. Com resultados diferentes, Salomons et al. (14), ao investigar o estado nutricional de 1647 escolares com idade entre 6 e 10 anos da rede municipal de ensino de Arapoti, estado do Paraná, mostraram uma prevalência relativamente alta de desnutrição e de excesso de peso, indicando a coexistência de ambos os problemas, mos trando um quadro de transição epidemiológica inicial, onde problemas antigos, como a desnutrição, e proble mas mais recentes, como a obesidade ainda coexistem.

Estudo realizado na região Sul do Brasil, com es colares de 8 a 11 anos de idade de escolas urbanas de Pelotas (15), observou prevalências de sobrepeso e de obesidade de 29,8% e 9,1%, respectivamente, compro vando um incremento do excesso de peso nesta região de magnitude que se assemelha à observada em Floria nópolis.

Na região Nordeste do país, em escolas públicas da cidade de Natal, estudo com crianças de 6 a 11 anos de idade encontrou uma prevalência de excesso de peso de 15,6%, valor muito menor do que os observados na região sul do país (16).

Estudo realizado no município de Juiz de Fora, re gião Sudeste, com alunos menores de 10 anos de idade da rede pública, mostrou uma prevalência de desnutri ção, de 5,3% e 6,5% respectivamente para meninas e meninos, segundo os mesmos critérios da OMS, en quanto a prevalência de obesidade neste grupo era de 18% (17).

Alguns estudos (18,19), como esta pesquisa, mos tram uma associação entre o crescimento alcançado e a obesidade. Um destes, inclusive sugere que o impacto da estatura quando associado às elevações de IMC na infância, é preditivo de sobrepeso na idade adulta, e re velam que há impacto do crescimento elevado no ex cesso de peso.

Assim, é possível considerar que a transição epide miologica e nutricional está presente praticamente em todas as regiões do Brasil, como mostra a diminuição da prevalência de desnutrição aliada ao incremento da prevalência de excesso de peso, independentemente da fase do processo de transição em que cada região se encontra.

CONCLUSÃO

Como conclusão pode-se deduzir que nas escolas públicas analisadas, as crianças em idade escolar apre sentam um padrão adequado de crescimento em esta tura e, a baixa estatura é inferior ao referencial utilizado. Quanto ao estado nutricional, nessa faixa etá ria as crianças apresentavam prevalência elevada de ex cesso de peso (sobrepeso e obesidade) com ausência de magreza ou magreza acentuada. A obesidade grave aparece com uma prevalência muito elevada quando comparada ao esperado pelo referencial.

Tudo isso indica a necessidade de realizar progra mas de intervenção para prevenção do excesso de peso e suas complicações, presentes e/ou futuras, para a saúde.

Nesse sentido o espaço escolar pode ser um am biente propício para intervenções preventivas, pois concentra grande percentual de crianças, o que pode viabilizar estratégias voltadas para a promoção de há bitos saudáveis. A atuação preventiva nessa faixa de idade pode promover inclusive a diminuição das doen ças crônicas não transmissíveis que afetam a população adulta.

é importante ainda lembrar, que medidas de pre venção e controle de peso nos escolares não podem se restringir exclusivamente ao ambiente da escola, mas também devem se estender aos pais ou responsáveis pelas crianças, uma vez que o ambiente familiar possui uma notável influência nos hábitos de vida e no estado nutricional durante a infância.

REFERÊNCIAS

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5. Quaioti TCB e Almeida SS. Determinantes psicobio lógicos do comportamento alimentar: uma ênfase em fatores ambientais que contribuem para a obesidade. Psicol USP. 2006; 17(4):193-211.         [ Links ]

6. Eriksson J, Forsen T, Tuomilechto J, Osmand C, Barker D. Size at birth, childhood growth and obesity in adult life. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2001; 25(5):735 40.         [ Links ]

7. Matijasevich A, Santos IS, Menezes AMB, Barros AJD, Gigante DP, Horta BL, Barros FC, Victora CG. Trends in socioeconomic inequalities in anthropometric status in a population undergoing the nutritional tran sition: data from 1982, 1993 and 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort studies. BMC Public Health. 2012;12:511.         [ Links ]

8. Stovitz SD, et al. The Interaction of Childhood Height and Childhood BMI in the Prediction of Young Adult BMI. Articles epidemiology. Volume 16 Number 10, 2008.

9. Stovitz SD, et al. Child Height and the Risk of Young Adult Obesity. Am J Prev Med;38(1):74 –77) , 2010 .

10. Portal Brasil. índice de Desenvolvimento Humano. Disponível em http://www.brasil.gov.br . Acesso em: 10 Janeiro, 2016.         [ Links ]

11. World Health Organization. Physical status: the use and interpretation of anthropometry. Geneva: WHO; 1995.         [ Links ]

12. World Health Organization. Growth reference data for 5-19 years. Disponivel em: http://www.who.int/growthref/en . Acesso em Janeiro, 2016.         [ Links ]

13. Brasil. Ministério da Saúde. Departamento de Atenção Básica. Sistema de vigilância alimentar e nutricional. 2009. Disponível em: < http://nutricao.saude.gov.br\\sisvan.php?conteudo=curvas_cresc_oms   [2010 Jan 20]>. Acesso em: 10 jul 2011.

14. Salomons E, Rech CR, Loch MR. Estado nutricional de escolares de seis a dez anos de idade da rede muni cipal de ensino de Arapoti, Parana. Rev. Bras.Cinean tropom. Desempenho Hum. 2007;9(3):243-249.         [ Links ]

15. Vieira MFA, Araujo CLP, Hallal PC et al. Estado nu tricional de escolares de 1a a 4a séries do Ensino Fun damental das escolas urbanas da cidade de Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Cad. Saúde Pública, Rio de Ja neiro. 2008; 24(7):1667-1674.         [ Links ]

16. Brasil LMP, Fisberg M, Maranhão HS. Excesso de peso de escolares em região do Nordeste Brasileiro: con traste entre as redes de ensino pública e privada. Rev. Bras. Saúde Matern. Infant, Recife. 2007; 7 (4): 405 412.         [ Links ]

17. Rodrigues PA, Marques MH, Chaves MGAM et al. Prevalência e fatores associados a sobrepeso e obesi dade em escolares da rede pública. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva. 2011; 16(Supl. 1):1581-1588.         [ Links ]

18. Freedman DS, at all. Height and Adiposity among Chil dren. Obesity Research. Vol. 12 No. 5 May 2004.

19. Dommelen PV, Kroon MLA, C NI, Schonbeck Y, Buu ren S.The Impact of Height during Childhood on the National Prevalence Rates of Overweight. PLOS One, January 2014, vol 9,Issue1, 85769.

Recibido: 10-09-2016 Aceptado: 22-02-201

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Asociación entre sedentarismo y malos hábitos alimentarios en estudiantes de nutrición

Association between sedentarism and bad dietary habits among nutrition students.

Rodrigo Gatica, Wilma Yunge, Carol Quintana, Maria Ana Helmrich, Eloina Fernández, Andrea Hidalgo,Jessica Fuentes, Pamela Fehrmann, Claudia Delgado, María Teresa Silva, Samuel Durán-Agüero

Facultad de Medicina, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad San Sebastián

 

RESUMEN

. El sedentarismo se relaciona con disminución a la sensibilidad de insulina y acumulación de tejido adiposo visceral. Lo que sumado a malos hábitos alimentarios, explican en parte el aumento global de sobrepeso y obesidad. En Chile el exceso de peso afecta a 64,4% y el sedentarismo al 88,6% de la población.El objetivo es determinar los niveles de sedentarismo en los estudiantes de la carrera de Nutrición y Dietética y evaluar si existe asociación con sus hábitos alimentarios. Se evaluaron 607 estudiantes de la carrera de Nutrición y Dietética aplicándoles una evaluación antropométrica de peso y talla, una encuesta de evaluación alimentaria y una encuesta de actividad física.Resultados: El porcentaje de mujeres sedentarias fue significativamente mayor que en los hombres (74,3% v/s 40,5%). Además,las mujeres que nunca cenabancasi duplicaron el porcentaje observado en los hombres. Finalmente,al comparar 2 grupos de estudiantes, unocompuesto por los que nunca desayunaban, ni cenaban y otro por los que desayunaban y cenaban todos los días,se determinó que existe asociación entre actividad física y la conducta alimentaria ( 2= 10,56; p=0.001)

En este estudio se determinó que los individuos jóvenes sedentarios presentaban un mal comportamiento alimentario que quienes realizaban algún tipo de actividad física. Nuestros resultados sugieren que realizar algún tipo de actividad física se asocia a un mejor patrón de alimentación

Palabras clave: Actividad Física, Hábitos Dietarios, Estudiantes

SUMMARY.

A sedentary lifestyle is associated with decreased insulin sensitivity and accumulation of visceral adipose tissue. Which combined with poor eating habits, explain the overall increase in overweight and obesity. In Chile overweight it affects 64.4% and 88.6% sedentary population. The objective was to determine the levels of sedentarism in Nutrition and Dietetics students’s and evaluate whether there is an association with eating habits. 607 students from Nutrition and Dietetics were evaluated by applying an anthropometric weight and height assessment, a food assessment survey and a physical activity survey.Results: The percentage of sedentary women was significantly higher than in men (74.3% v / s 40.5%), also women who never eat dinner nearly twice the percentage observed in men. Finally, students who performed some type of physical activity had a significantly higher percentage in the frequency of consumption of breakfast and dinner, with respect to sedentary students. Determining an association between physical activity and eating behaviour ( 2= 10,56; p=0.001). This study determined that young sedentary individuals had a worse eating habits than those who performed some type of physical activity. Our results suggest that perform some type of physical activity is associated with better eating pattern.

Key words: Physical Activity, Dietary Habits, Students

Recibido: 10-08-2016 Aceptado: 28-11-2016

INTRODUCCIÓN

El sedentarismo es un importante factor de riesgo para muchas enfermedades relacionadas al estilo de vida. A nivel mundial 1 de cada 3 adultos y 4 de cada 5 adolescentes, no realizan la cantidad ni la calidad de ejercicio diario recomendado (1). La inactividad física(incluso en cortos períodos de tiempo)se ha asociado,a cambios metabólicos, disminución de la sensibilidad a insulina, disminución del metabolismo lipídico postprandial, pérdida de masa muscular y acumulación de tejido adiposo visceral (2). La asociación del sedentarismo con obesidad, también se ha observado con la ingesta excesiva de alimentos, todo lo cual ha llevado a que la obesidad a nivel mundial, se haya duplicado desde la década de los ochenta (3). En este sentido es que el ejercicio y la restricción calórica se utilizan para perder peso corporal. Además, de los efectos beneficiosos de la actividad física sobre el control del peso, la actividad física también mejora los niveles de glicemia en pacientes diabéticos tipo 2 aumentando la captación de glucosa por parte del musculo y equili bra la producción de glucosa hepática (4).

Durante los últimos 50 años, se han realizado estudios que han evaluado los comportamientos alimentarios en niños y adolescentes,estos han concluido que existe una ingesta excesiva de bebidas azucaradas, de comida rápida y una baja ingesta de frutas y verduras (5). Este tipo de comportamiento se asocia con sobrepeso, peor calidad de vida y para solucionar estos los problemas, se suelen aplicar intervenciones nutricionales (6). El sobrepeso y la obesidad constituyen factores de riesgo independientes para enfermedades crónicas, además de asociarse a estigmatización social y baja autoestima. Según la Encuesta Nacional de Salud realizada en Chile el año 2010,el 27,4% de la población adulta presentaba obesidad y 39,3% sobrepeso, afectando el exceso de peso al 67% de la población. Esto representó un incremento del 6% con respecto a la encuesta realizada en el año 2003, (7, 8).Diversos factores, como sedentarismo y hábitos alimentarios, explican esta situación nutricional. En Chile la prevalencia de sedentarismo de tiempo libre, alcanzó en el año 2010 un 88,6% (8) y de acuerdo a la Encuesta nacional de consumo alimentario, la cena es consumida sólo por el 27% de la población (9).Por ello es que, quediversos trabajos tanto en Chile como en el extranjero, se han centrado en los hábitos alimentarios de estudiantes, por considerarlos una población susceptible de adquirir costumbres poco saludables (10,11,12, 13).Se ha reportado que niños y adolescentes que desayunan todos los días presentan un mejor perfil nutricional (5) y que quienes se saltan el desayuno presentan un mayor índice de masa corporal (13). Además, otro estudio ha determinado que existe una asociación inversa entre el sobrepeso y consumo de cena (14). Es por lo anteriormente expuesto, que nuestra investigación se centra en determinar los niveles de sedentarismo en los estudiantes de la carrera de Nutrición y Dietética y evaluar si existe relación con sus hábitos alimentarios.

MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS

Participantes. La muestra estuvocompuesta por 607estudiantes de la carrera de nutrición y dietética de la Universidad San Sebastián.Se encuestaron 175 estudiantes de la sede de Santiago ubicada en la región Metropolitana, 234 estudiantes de la sede Concepción de la octava región, 107 estudiantes de la sede de Valdivia de la décimo cuarta región y 91 estudiantes de la sede Puerto Montt de la décima región. La población incluida en la investigación correspondió a hombres y mujeres mayores de 18 años. La toma de la muestra fue dirigida no probabilística intencional. Los encuestadores fueron docentes que desempeñaban funciones en las diferentes sedes regionales de la universidad. La encuesta se aplicó durante el segundo semestre académico, entre septiembre y diciembre del año 2014, en dependencias de la Universidad San Sebastián,. Los criterios de inclusión fueron hombres y mujeres mayores de 18 años que cursaban alguna asignatura de la carrera de Nutrición y Dietética. Los criterios de exclusión fueron; estudiantes que no respondieron todas las encuestas. A los participantes, se le informó que la consulta tenía carácter investigativo, por lo tanto cada participante firmó un consentimiento informado, dicho documento fue revisado y aprobado por el Comité de ética de la Universidad San Sebastián. Se aseguró la confidencialidad de la información recopilada.

Diseño. El diseño de esta investigación corresponde a un estudio de tipo transversal, descriptivo y comparativo entre hombres y mujeres que estudian la carrera de Nutrición y Dietética, en las diferentes sedes de la Universidad San Sebastián. En este estudio se evalúo mediante el cálculo del índice de masa corporal (IMC)el estado nutricional, los hábitos alimentarios y la actividad física, mediante:

1. Antropometría

Se efectuó una evaluación antropométrica de peso y talla. La determinación del peso se realizó con un mínimo de ropa, utilizando una balanza mecánica (SECA, capacidad máxima de 220 kg precisión en 50 g). La estatura se midió con un tallímetro incorporado a la balanza. Se calculó el índice de masa corporal (IMC) para categorizar el estado nutricional de acuerdo a criterio OMS.

2. Encuesta alimentaria

Se realizó una encuesta alimentaria, el instrumento utilizado para la recolección de datos, correspondió a una encuesta denominada “Encuesta sobre hábitos alimentarios” creada por Durán y colaboradores (10). Se realizó una validación del cuestionario por juicio de 25 expertos, a través del método Delphi.El juicio de experto permitió contrastar cada uno de los ítems con la teoría en relación a los hábitos alimentarios de los estudiantes.

La encuesta tuvo por objetivo medir los hábitos alimentarios de los sujetos, fue de auto aplicación, y estaba compuesta por nueve ítems con un puntaje mínimo de 1 y máximo de 5 por pregunta (escala de tipo Likert), que indica la frecuencia de hábitos saludables (consumo de diferentes tipos de alimentos, durante el desayuno y cena).

3. Cuestionario Internacional de Actividad Física

Se aplicó un cuestionario Internacional de actividad física (IPAQ, por sus siglas en inglés) (15), para conocer sobre el tipo de actividad física que los estudiantes realizaban como parte de su vida diaria. Las preguntas se refirieron acerca del tiempo que utilizóla persona siendo físicamente activa en los últimos 7 días.

Análisis estadístico. El análisis de los datos se realizó con el software IBM® SPSS® Statistic 20.0 SPSS, y Microsoft ® Office Excel ® 2013 MSO Part of Microsoft Office. Para la evaluación de los resultados se utilizó estadística descriptiva (número de individuos, frecuencias y porcentajes), tablas de frecuencia y gráficos de barras. Las evaluación de las diferencia en consumo de alimentos según sexo y años de estudio (1-3 año y 4-5 año) se realizó mediante la aplicación de la Prueba de Mann Whittney considerando que la escala de medida de la variables era ordinal (escala tipo Likert del 1 al 5), donde 1 es quién nunca consume y 5 quién consume todos los días. Esta misma técnica estadística se utilizó para evaluar la diferencia en el tipo de alimentos que consumen los estudiantes activos y sedentarios dado que las respuestas están en la misma escala de medida (Likert).

Se comparó a los estudiantes que desayunaban y cenaban todos los días respecto de aquellos que nunca lo hacían, según fueran en un caso activos o sedentarios y en otro caso hombre o mujer. Esta comparación se realizó mediante la aplicación de la prueba Chi Cuadrado de independencia y el cálculo del coeficiente (phi) que mide el grado de asociación entre las variables categóricas dicotómicas. Las hipótesis de diferencias fueron evaluadas considerando con un nivel de una significancia p ≤0,05

RESULTADOS

La edad promedio de la población encuestada (Tabla 1) fue de 22 años, con un rango que va desde los 18 años hasta los 39 años. El 70,7% de los estudiantes presentaronpeso normal, el 23,6% sobrepeso y solo un 3,3% obesidad. Con respecto, al sexo, el 87,3% de los estudiantes eran mujeres. El 78,9% de los estudiantes se encontraban cursando entre primer y tercer año de la carrera y el restante 21,1% se encontraba entre cuarto y quinto año de la carrera.Este último grupo presentó una frecuencia en el consumo de desayuno significativamente mayor que el grupo de los 3 primeros años de la carrera (Tabla 2). Finalmente, al comparar los hábitos de consumo de desayuno y cena, con respecto al índice de masa corporal (IMC) no se encontraron diferencias significativas (datos no mostrados). Con respecto, a las frecuencias en el consumo del desayuno no se observó diferencia significativa entre hombres y mujeres (Tabla 3). Se determinó que aproximadamente el 20%, tanto de hombres como mujeres, nunca desayunabany el 50% lo realizaba de manera poco frecuente (datos no mostrados).Al comparar las frecuencias de consumo de cena se determinóuna mayor frecuencia en el consumo de los hombres lo que fue estadísticamente significativo (Tabla 3). El 60,8% de las mujeres nunca cenaban, casi el doble que elregistrado entre los hombres. El 19,5% de los hombres cenaban todos los días, un porcentaje mucho mayor que el 8,5% en el caso de las mujeres (datos no mostrados). Además, se determinó que los hombres presentaron una frecuencia de consumo de pescado, significativamente mayor que las mujeres (Tabla 3).

Para determinar si existía alguna asociación entre sexo y hábito alimentario, se seleccionaron sólo los estudiantes que desayunaban y cenaban todos los días (n=45) y se compararon con aquellos estudiantes que nunca desayunaban ni cenaban (n=46). Se determinó que el número de hombresque desayunaba y cenaba todos los días fue significativamente mayor que el valor esperado. Al aplicar la Prueba Chi Cuadrado de Independencia, se determinó que el sexo está asociado con la conducta alimentaria  ( = 10,56; p=0,001). Además, basado en el cálculo del coeficiente phi, ( = -0,24) esta asociación es discreta (Tabla 4).

Posteriormente, los estudiantes fueron agrupados en 2 categorías: estudiantes sedentarios y estudiantes que realizaban algún tipo de actividad física durante la semana (activos). Al comparar los IMC de estudiantes sedentarios con estudiantes activos, no se encontraron diferencias significativas (datos no mostrados). Al analizar el comportamiento de los estudiantes por sede, se determinó que las sedes de Puerto Montt y Concepción presentaron el mayor porcentaje de estudiantes sedentarios (69,7 y 72,5%, respectivamente), diferencia estadísticamente significativa con respecto a las sedes de Santiago y Valdivia (36 y 41,1%, respectivamente) (datos no mostrados). Al comparar la actividad física con respecto al sexo, en las sedes con alto porcentaje de estudiante sedentarios (Concepción y Puerto Montt), las mujeres sedentarias presentaron un porcentaje significativamente mayor que los hombres (74,3% v/s 40,5%). Al analizar en las sedes con bajo porcentaje de estudiante sedentarios (Santiago y Valdivia), nuevamente las mujeres sedentarias presentaron un porcentaje significativamente mayor que los hombres (40,5% v/s 22,5%). (Tabla 5).

Para determinar si existía alguna asociación entre actividad físicay hábito alimentario, se seleccionaron sólo los estudiantes que desayunaban y cenaban todos los días (n=45) y se compararon con aquellos estudiantes que nunca desayunaban ni cenaban (n=46). Se determinó que el número de estudiantes que realizaba alguna actividad física y que desayunaba y cenaba todos los días fue significativamente mayor que el valoresperado.Al aplicar la Prueba Chi Cuadrado de Independencia, se determinó que la actividad física está asociada con la conducta alimentaria ( = 10,56; p=0.001). Además, esta asociación es discreta basadas en el cálculo del coeficiente phi, ( = -0,341) (Tabla 6).

Finalmente, se comparó la frecuencia en el consumo de alimentos saludables (legumbres, pescado, frutas y verduras), de alimentos poco saludables (frituras), de desayuno y de cena entre estudiantes activos y sedentarios. En el grupo de estudiantes activos la frecuencia de desayuno y cena fue significativamente mayor que en el grupo de estudiantes sedentarios.Además, la frecuencia de consumo de legumbres, pescado, frutas y verduras fue significativamente mayor en los estudiantes que realizaban algún tipo de actividad física. Por otro lado, la frecuencia de consumo de frituras fue significativamente mayor en los estudiantes sedentarios (Tabla 7).

DISCUSIÓN

Se determinó que existe una asociación entre sedentarismo ymalos hábitos alimentarios. Sin embargo,no se estableció una asociación entre sedentarismo con IMC, una de las posibles causas es el elevado porcentajede los estudiantes con un IMC normal (70,4%). En cambio, el sedentarismo se asoció conuna menor frecuencia en el consumo de alimentos saludables (frutas y verduras) y con mayor tendencia en saltarse comidas (desayuno y cena). Este patrón se observó más claramente en las mujeres, las cuales presentaron peores hábitos alimentarios y mayor sedentarismo que los hombres. En este mismo sentido, se determinó que la frecuencia del consumo de desayuno fue significativamente mayor en el grupo de estudiantes que desarrollaron algún tipo de actividad física.Diversos estudios apoyan la idea de que el consumo diario de comidas, como desayuno y cena, se asocia con un mejor estado nutricional (5, 13, 14, 15, 16). De hecho, saltarse habitualmente el desayuno es considerado un hábito poco saludable y se relaciona con obesidad, diabetes mellitus tipo 2 y síndrome metabólico (17). Aunque la calidad del desayuno puede variar, se ha reportado que niños y adolescentes que desayunan todos los días presentan un mejor perfil nutricional (5). Otro estudio (13) ha determinado que quienes se saltan el desayuno presentan un mayor índice de masa corporal (IMC). A pesar que no se logró determinar esta asociación, este comportamiento puede implicar que en el futuro,dichos estudiantes sedentarios sean más susceptibles de desarrollar sobrepeso y obesidad.

En esta investigación, la frecuencia en el consumo de cena fue significativamente mayor en los estudiantes activos y además estos presentaron un mayor consumo en frutas, verduras, legumbres y pescado. Lo que concuerda con el estudio publicado el año 2012 por Pedersen y colaboradores, quienes encontraron asociación entre el consumo irregular de cena con una baja frecuencia en el consumo de frutas y vegetales (16).A pesar que en nuestro estudio no encontramos una asociación entre maloshábitos alimentarios y exceso de peso, otro estudio publicado el año 2010 y realizado en niños ha reportado que existe una asociación inversa entre el sobrepeso y consumo de cena (14).Posiblemente, una de las razones por las que no encontramos esta asociación en nuestro estudio, es que el 87% de los encuestados era de sexo femenino, en tanto que el estudio del Yannakoulia presentó un porcentaje de mujeres del 54%. Sin embargo, nuestros datos indican que existe una asociación positivaentre la actividad física y mejores hábitos alimentarios. Lo que se sumaría a los efectos directos de la actividad física (18).

De acuerdo a la presente investigación y a investigaciones previas (19, 20),la realización de algún tipo de actividad física durante la semana se relaciona a un estilo de vida más saludable (mejor hábito alimentario). En concordancia con este punto, en esta investigación se pudo determinar que el porcentaje de los hombres que desarrollaban algún tipo de actividad física fue significativamente mayor que en el caso de las mujeres. Datos similares a los observado por Rodríguez y colaboradores (2013),quiendeterminó que la inactividad física, es significativamente mayor en mujeres universitarias que en hombres (21)

En cuanto a los porcentajes de sedentarismo de tiempo libre, este alcanzó el 70%, en las sedes de Puerto Montt y Concepción casi el doble que en las sedes de Santiago y Valdivia. Sin embargo, ambos porcentajes son menores al compararlos con la prevalencia a nivel nacional (7), tanto para el grupo etario de 15 a 24 años (75,6%), como para personas mayores de 25 años (sobre 90%). Esta diferencia regional, se podría explicar en parte por efecto del clima, procedencia de los estudiantes y acceso a instalaciones para practicar deportes. Sin embargo, recientemente un estudio realizado en niños determinóque las diferencias regionales observadas en el comportamiento sedentario, no pueden atribuirse sólo a condiciones ambientales ni socioeconómicas (22). Por lo tanto, sería interesante analizar en mayor profundidad estos datos que permitieran explicar estas diferencias.

La inactividad física es uno de los mayores problemas de la salud pública, debido a que este comportamiento se relaciona con engrosamiento de la íntima en la arteria carótida, síndrome metabólico, cáncer y obesidad (23). A pesar que en este estudio, no se determinó una asociación entre sedentarismo y aumento de peso, otros estudios sí lo asocian con obesidad abdominal(20, 23, 24). Este tipo de obesidad genera citoquinas proinflamatorias que contribuyen con la resistencia a insulina, hiperinsulinemia, diabetes y mayor riesgo de presentar cáncer (24). Este aumento de citoquinas proinflamatorias, también genera disfunción endotelial, lo que se relaciona con ateroesclerosis, hipertensión y enfermedades cardiacas(12).

Diversos estudios han estimado, el aumento en los gastos de los sistemas de salud generados directamente por la obesidad entre 0,7 y 2,8%, (25) y los costos indirectos relacionados con baja productividad y mortalidad temprana (26). Uno de los costos asociados a obesidad más relevantes es la diabetes y dentro de ella la nefropatía diabética. En Chile, el 38,2% de las personas que necesitan ser dializadas son diabéticas, con un costo mensual estimadode 573.000 pesos por persona(27), representando uno de los gastos más relevantes para el servicio de salud público. Es por esto que muchos países, han implementado o están implementando políticas para la prevenciónde la obesidad (28). Dentro de las acciones que ejecutan los gobiernos se encuentran, por ejemplo; la creación de leyes en el etiquetado de alimentos y campañas educacionales tendientes a mejorar el estilo de vida y la alimentación.

CONCLUSIÓN

En el momento de realizar la investigación, la carrera de Nutrición y Dietética estaba conformada principalmente por mujeres y son ellas las que presentaron peores hábitos alimentarios y un mayor porcentaje de sedentarismo. Además, los estudiantes que cursaban los 2 últimos años de carrera, sólo presentaron una mejor frecuencia en el consumo de desayuno, bastante lejos de lo esperado por estudiantes que estaban pronto a titularse. De acuerdo la presente investigación, los estudiantes que realizaban algún tipo de actividad físicapresentaron un mejor patrón alimentario que aquellos sedentarios. Por lo tanto, se sugiere realizar actividades para combatir el sedentarismo y generar discusión en torno a la misión que les corresponde como profesionales encargados de mejorar los hábitos alimentarios de la población.

AGRADECIMIENTOS

A las autoridades de la carrera de Nutrición y Dietética por permitir realizar el estudio

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Diferencias entre conductas alimentarias de preescolares que recibieron lactancia materna completa y preescolares que recibieron sucedáneos de la leche humana

Alethia Guadalupe Mariscal Rizo, Edgar M. Vásquez Garibay, Ma. Irene Santos Torres, María del Carmen Espinosa Gómez, Rogelio Troyo Sanromán, Clío Chávez Palencia

Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Jalisco, México. Centro Universitario Tonalá, Universidad de Guadalajara, Tonalá, Jalisco, México

 

RESUMEN

. El propósito fue demostrar diferencias en las conductas alimentarias entre preescolares que recibieron lactancia materna completa (LMC: exclusiva o predominante) y preescolares que recibieron sucedáneos de la leche humana (SLH), que acuden a jardín de niños de la zona metropolitana de Guadalajara. En estudio trasversal analítico por conveniencia, se seleccionaron a 177 preescolares de tres a cinco años de edad, sanos, nacidos a término, peso normal al nacer, con antecedentes de alimentación con LME o SLH que acudían a tres jardines de niños. Se aplicó un cuestionario vali dado de conductas alimentarias que consta de ocho escalas. Se obtuvieron variables socioeconómicas y demográficas de las familias e indicadores antropométricos de los participan tes. Se aplicaron pruebas t de Student, U de Mann-Whitney, Chi cuadrado, razón de momios, coeficiente de correlación de Pearson y regresión logística. Hubo 2.8 veces mayor probabilidad de puntaje elevado en la escala comer menos por emociones en el grupo de SLH [RM=2.8 (1.0, 8.3), p=0.037]. Se observaron 15 correlaciones significativas entre las diferentes escalas del cuestionario en el grupo de LMC (62.5%) y nueve en el grupo de SLH (37.5%). Hubo siete correlaciones significativas entre las escalas en el grupo LMC que no fueron significativas en el grupo de SLH. En preescolares que recibieron LMC, a mayor lentitud para comer hubo menor irritabilidad hacia los alimentos (r=-0.325, p=0.01). Los preescolares con antecedentes de LMC tendrían menor probabilidad de alteraciones de conducta alimentaria y mostraron mayor número de correlaciones significativas entre las escalas que los preescolares que recibieron SLH.

Palabras clave: Lactancia materna exclusiva, conductas alimentarias, preescolares

Eating behaviors of preschoolers who were exclusively breastfed, and preschoolers who received human milk substitutes

SUMMARY.

The purpose was to demonstrate differences in eating behaviors among preschool children who received full breastfeeding (FBF: exclusive or predominant) and preschool children who received human milk substitutes (HMS), who attend kindergarten in the metropolitan area of Guadalajara, Mexico. In analytical cross-sectional study by convenience, 177 preschoolers, three to five years old, healthy, term infants with normal weight at birth and feeding history of FBF or HMS attending three kinder gartens were selected. A validated questionnaire of eating behaviors consisting of eight scales was applied. Socioeconomic and demographic variables of families and anthropometric indicators of participants were obtained. Student's t test, U Mann-Whitney, chi-square, odds ratio, Pearson correlation coefficient and logistic regression tests were ap plied. There were 2.8 times more likely to score high on the scale eat less by emotions in HMS group [OR = 2.8 (1.0, 8.3), p = 0.037]. Fifteen significant correlations between different scales of the questionnaire in the FBF group (62.5%) and nine in the HMS group (37.5%) were observed. There were seven significant correlations among the scales in FBF group, but not significant in the HMS group. In preschoolers receiving FBF, more frequency of eating slowly was related to less irritability to food (r=-0.325, p=0.01).Preschoolers with a history of FBF would be less likely to have alterations in eating behavior and showed more significant correlations between the scales that preschoolers who received HMS.

Key words: Full breastfeeding, eating behaviors, prescho olers

Recibido: 16-09-2016 Aceptado: 01-11-2016

INTRODUCCIÓN

La Organización Mundial de la Salud (1) recomienda ofrecer “lactancia materna exclusiva (LME) durante los primeros seis meses de vida, tiempo en que se inicia la introducción de alimentos seguros y nutritivos mientras continua la lactancia hasta dos años o más”. Este es un periodo fundamental para el “desarrollo del potencial humano completo del niño” (2). Además, la LME favorece el crecimiento, la salud, el estado físico y emocional óptimo del lactante (3).Sin embargo, a pesar de las múltiples campañas de promoción, la lac tancia materna completa (exclusiva y predominante) no ha alcanzado la frecuencia esperada (4-6). La ENSANUT 2012 (4) señala que las prácticas de lactancia materna en México se encuentran por debajo de la recomendación de la OMS (1). La prevalencia de LME hasta los seis meses ha descendido significativamente de 22.3% en 2006 (7) a 14.4% en 2012 (4) y en la zona metropolitana de Guadalajara (zMG) ha ocurrido un descenso similar. Con relación a las conductas alimentarias, se ha señalado que las preferencias por los sabores se forman en los lactantes a través de la leche humana, la cual aparentemente cambia su olor según los alimentos que la madre consume (8, 9). Al parecer cuando el lactante inicia el consumo de alimentos sólidos prefiere algunos sabores sobre otros, basado en la experiencia previa durante la lactancia. Estudios realizados en países europeos, Estados Unidos y Chile, han mostrado que las preferencias alimentarias de los preescolares se asocian a la influencia de los padres y a factores socioeconómicos, demográficos y culturales (10-13). Paralelamente, algunos trabajos se han focalizado en explorar la relación entre la lactancia materna y el riesgo y/o protección para el desarrollar sobrepeso u obesidad en la edad preescolar (14-18). Se ha demostrado que los lactantes alimentados al pecho materno muestran mayor ingestión de verdura después de la exposición que los lactantes alimentados con fórmula (19). Se ha sugerido que la experiencia de la alimentación al pecho materno expone al lactante a diferentes sabores que encuentra en la leche humana; en consecuencia, alimentos consumidos por la madre con mayor frecuencia, serían mejor aceptados. Un estudio cuasi-experimental mostró que los recuerdos de olores adquiridos tempranamente durante la lactancia influirían en los procesos conductuales durante la niñez temprana (20). Si durante la lactancia materna se da el primer contacto con los alimentos. Es probable que esta experiencia tenga un impacto en el desarrollo de gustos y preferencias alimentarias, que perduren en la etapa preescolar, periodo en el que se consolidan los hábitos alimentarios Por ello, el propósito del estudio fue demostrar diferencias entre las conductas alimentarias de preescolares con antecedentes de lactancia materna completa (LMC) por un periodo igual o mayor a cuatro meses y preescolares con antecedentes de alimentación con sucedáneos de la leche humana (SLH) durante el mismo periodo, que acuden a jardines de niños de la zMG. METODOS En este estudio trasversal analítico se seleccionaron 177 preescolares de tres a cinco años de edad, que acu dían a tres jardines de niños de la zMG que aceptaron participar en el estudio durante el año 2012. Se encon traban aparentemente sanos, nacidos a término, con peso normal al nacer, antecedentes de alimentación con lactancia materna completa (exclusiva y predominante) o con SLH. El criterio de lactancia materna fue: a) Lac tancia materna completa (LMC): lactancia materna ex clusiva + lactancia materna predominante; b) lactancia materna exclusiva: exclusivamente leche humana, no se dan otros líquidos ni sólidos —ni siquiera agua— ex ceptuando la administración de soluciones de rehidra tación oral o de vitaminas, minerales o medicamentos en forma de gotas o jarabes; c) lactancia materna pre dominante: permite ciertos líquidos (agua y bebidas a base de agua, jugos de fruta), líquidos rituales y suero oral, gotas o jarabes (vitaminas, minerales, medicinas) (1). Se aceptaron participantes sin malformaciones con génitas ni genopatías aparentes y que contaran con el consentimiento informado y firmado por los padres. No se incluyeron preescolares de estancias infantiles. Se excluyeron 38 preescolares con antecedentes de lactan cia materna mixta o información incompleta. Se realizó un muestreo no aleatorio, por conveniencia, y el cálculo de la muestra se estimó con un valor alfa de 0.05/2, un valor de beta de 0.8 y una probabilidad de 0.5. Variables. Dependientes: conductas alimentarias obtenidas con el Cuestionario de Conductas Alimenta rias en Niños (Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire, CEBQ, por sus siglas en inglés) elaborado por Wardle et al (21). Este cuestionario validado en castellano consta de 35 ítems divididos en ocho sub-escalas: 1) respuesta a la saciedad; 2) lentitud para comer; 3) irri tabilidad hacia los alimentos; 4) respuesta a los alimen tos; 5) disfrute de los alimentos; 6) deseos de beber; 7) comer menos por emociones; 8) comer más por emo ciones. Utiliza una escala de Likert con las siguientes opciones y puntuaciones: nunca (1), casi nunca (2), a veces (3), a menudo (4), siempre (5). Una vez validado, se aplicó a la madre o tutor responsable del niño, se ob tuvo un puntaje total de la prueba y un puntaje para cada sub-escala, dichos puntajes se analizaron de ma nera cuantitativa y cualitativa. Independientes: antece dentes de alimentación con LMC o SLH; característi cas generales y antropométricas de los preescolares; escolaridad y ocupación de los padres; datos socioeco nómicos (ingreso familiar mensual, gasto en alimenta ción per-cápita).

Antropometría. Previa estandarización de dos ob servadores con el método de Habitch (22) se realizaron las siguientes mediciones: peso en ropa interior con una bata diseñada exprofeso para tal fin con un peso cono cido, en una báscula con una lectura mínima de 100 g (Tanita UM-081, Tokio, Japón). La estatura de los par ticipantes se obtuvo con una escala graduada marca seca-214 (Hamburgo, Alemania) sin zapatos, con la punta de los pies levemente separados y los talones jun tos; la cabeza, hombros, nalgas y talones, colocados en Plano de Frankfort.

Análisis estadístico. Además de las estadísticas des criptivas se realizaron las siguientes pruebas analíticas: t de Studenty, U de Mann-Whitney para la compara ción de variables paramétricas con y sin distribución normal; chi-cuadrado y razón de momios para la ex ploración de asociaciones entre variables no paramé tricas. Para el análisis del cuestionario de conductas alimentarias se obtuvo el promedio de las puntuaciones obtenidas de los ítems correspondientes a cada una de las ocho sub-escalas. Una vez obtenidos los promedios de cada una de las sub-escalas y de la puntuación total, se estratificaron en desviaciones estándar (DE): < - 1 DE, ± 1 DE, y > 1 DE para su análisis cualitativo. Asi mismo, se realizó una prueba del coeficiente de Pear son para el análisis de correlación entre las sub-escalas del cuestionario de conductas alimentarias y un modelo de regresión logística para la identificación de las va riables socioeconómicas, demográficas y educaciona les asociadas al uso de SLH.

Consideraciones éticas. El protocolo fue aplicado una vez obtenido consentimiento informado, no puso en riesgo al sujeto de estudio y se apegó a los linea mientos de la declaración de Helsinki. Fue aprobado por los Comités de bioética e investigación de la Uni versidad de Guadalajara, dictamen CI-02412.

RESULTADOS

Se obtuvo una muestra homogénea de preescolares, con características demográficas y socioeconómicas si milares, que habitaban en la zona Metropolitana de Guadalajara (zMG), Tabla 1.  

La comparación de los indicadores antropométri cos mostró que en los preescolares que recibieron SLH, el índice talla/edad fue significativamente mayor que en el grupo que recibió LMC (p=0.042), Tabla 2.

Predominó el sexo femenino (54%) en preescolares que recibieron LMC y el sexo masculino (53.8%) en quienes recibieron SLH. En el grupo que recibió LMC, las familias eran nucleares en 69.9%, compuestas 5.7%, ampliadas 26.4% y monoparentales 5.7%; En el grupo que recibió SLH, las familias eran nucleares en 73.1%, compuestas 3.8%, ampliadas 21.2% y mono parentales 0%. El ingreso familiar fue de dos a cinco salarios mínimos en 62.1% de los lactantes en LMC y de 44.2% en lactantes en SLH; mientras que fue mayor de cinco salarios mínimos en 37.9% de los lactantes en LMC y 55.8% en lactantes en SLH (p=0.041). Las ma dres se dedicaban al hogar con más frecuencia en lac tantes que recibieron LMC (49.4%) que en lactantes alimentados con SLH (36.5%). Predominaron las ma dres profesionistas en lactantes en que recibieron LMC (14.9%) versus lactantes en SLH (5.8%); eran emple adas 20.4% de las madres en lactantes que recibieron LMC versus 44.1% en las madres de lactantes en SLH.

La ocupación del padre no mostró diferencias porcen tuales importantes entre los dos grupos. La mayoría (69.8%) eran empleados, 10.1% comerciantes, 10.8% profesionistas y 1.4% desempleados. La escolaridad de las madres mostró una dispersión similar entre el grupo que recibió LMC y el grupo que recibió SLH. La ma yoría de la población estudiada (93%) tenía mínimo se cundaria completa. Un número importante (25%) había cursado la licenciatura y estudios de posgrado. Del mismo modo, el nivel de escolaridad de los padres fue similar para ambos gru pos, donde 85% había cursado como mínimo la secundaria y 29% tenía estudios superiores a licenciatura.

La Tabla 3 muestra que los lactantes de ma dres dedicadas al hogar, profesionistas o comerciantes establecidas tenían menor probabilidad de dar SLH [RM= 0.247 (0.11, 0.55), p=0.001]. Cuando la decisión de abandonar la lactancia dependía de la madre, se mostró una proba bilidad seis veces mayor (49.4%) de dar LMC por lo menos hasta el cuarto mes de vida. Por el contrario, niños de familias cuyo ingreso familiar mensual fue mayor a cinco salarios mínimos, tuvieron una mayor probabilidad de recibir SLH [RM= 2.24 (1.05, 4.77), p=0.036].

Con relación al cuestionario de conductas alimen tarias en niños, se observaron tendencias no significa tivas en la escala de irritabilidad hacia los alimentos y en la escala total del cuestionario de conductas alimen tarias en niños. Al estratificar las frecuencias de pun tuaciones en <-1DE vs >-1DE, se observó una probabilidad 2.8 veces mayor de obtener puntajes ele vados en la escala comer menos por emociones en el grupo de SLH [RM= 2.8 (1.0, 8.3), p=0.037], Tabla 4.

Al estimar la correlación de las ocho sub-escalas del cuestionario, separadas entre el grupo LME vs SLH, Tabla 5, se encontraron 15 correlaciones signifi cativas entre las diferentes escalas en el grupo de LMC (62.5%) y solo ocho en el grupo de SLH (37.5%) [RM=2.7 (0.90, 8.3), p=0.074]. Se observaron ocho co rrelaciones significativas coincidentes entre los dos grupos; hubo siete correlaciones significativas en el grupo LMC que no fueron significativas en el grupo de SLH; mientras que hubo una sola correlación signifi cativa para la alimentación con SLH que no fue signi ficativa para LME.

DISCUSIÓN

Se observó una gran variabilidad en el ingreso fa miliar mensual en una población que supuestamente pertenecía al estrato social medio. Consideramos que esta característica económica habría influido en los fac tores sociales, económicos, educacionales y de hábitos de alimentación de la población estudiada. La frecuen cia de familias nucleares en la zona metropolitana de Guadalajara es cada vez menor, situación que no difiere con lo observado en el resto del país (23). Sin embargo, en la población estudiada 60.9% de las familias del grupo LMC eran nucleares vs 73.1% del grupo SLH.

Por el contrario, alrededor de 40% de las familias del grupo LMC estaban integradas de manera ampliada, compuesta y mono-parental. Es probable que este rasgo tenga una influencia favorable en los hábitos de lactan cia, dado que, al duplicar la frecuencia de LMC y SLH de manera proporcional en la tabla de contingencia, la LMC fue menos frecuente en familias nucleares (58.9%) que en otros modelos de familia (71.7%). En estos modelos de familia no nucleares, la probabilidad de LMC aumentó en 82% [RM=1.82 (1.02, 3.3), p=0.029]. Es posible que la madre haya contado con el apoyo familiar que le dio la confianza necesaria para prolongar la alimentación al pecho materno. La perma nencia de la mujer en el hogar, un ingreso familiar más bajo (2-5 salarios mínimos) y/o el hecho de que las ma dres fueran profesionistas o comerciantes establecidas, habrían sido factores favorables a la LMC debido a que estas circunstancias, les habría permitido mayor liber tad y tiempo para la lactancia. Este fenómeno tendría sustento porque las madres con menor probabilidad de LMCfueron aquellas que laboraban como empleadas.

Es probable que largas jornadas de trabajo y transporte habrían sido un obstáculo para la alimentación al pecho materno. Hallazgos similares se han observado por dé cadas en México y en otros países (5, 24, 25).

En preescolares con antecedentes de LMC y SLH, la respuesta a la saciedad (escala 1) estuvo asociada po sitivamente con la lentitud para comer (escala 2) y con comer menos por emociones (escala 7). Se encontró una asociación negativa entre la respuesta a los alimen tos (escala 4) y el disfrute de los mismos (escala 5).

Esto implica que los preescolares, independientemente de sus antecedentes de alimentación, muestran conduc tas de mayor respuesta a la saciedad cuando los alimen tos no son de su agrado. De igual forma, ambos grupos mostraron una asociación inversa entre la lentitud para comer (escala 2) y el disfrute de los alimentos (escala 5). Estos hallazgos significarían que los niños comen más lento los alimentos que más les gustan y más rá pido los que más les disgustan. En ambos grupos hay una relación directa entre la irritabilidad hacia los ali mentos (escala 3) y el disfrute de los mismos (escala 5), lo que implica que los preescolares pueden identi ficar los alimentos que les gustan y los que les desagra dan. En ambos grupos, la escala comer menos por emo ciones o sub-alimentación emocional (escala 7) se asoció positivamente con la respuesta a la saciedad (es cala 1).

En ambos grupos, no hubo correlación entre la res puesta a la saciedad (escala 1) y el deseo de beber (es cala 6) y entre la misma escala 1 y comer más por emociones (escala 8). Es posible que en preescolares, la saciedad y el deseo de beber, sean dos signos fisio lógicos de origen distinto. Hubo una relación directa entre saciedad y comer menos por emociones (escala 7) pero no correlacionó saciedad con comer más por emociones (escala 8).El grupo de LMC mostró una co rrelación negativa entre la respuesta a la saciedad (es cala 1) y la irritabilidad hacia los alimentos (escala 3).

Esta correlación no se observó en preescolares que re cibieron SLH. Es posible que la respuesta a la saciedad sea un signo fisiológico más intenso en preescolares que recibieron LMC y estos niños tendrían menor di ficultad para acercarse a nuevos alimentos, menor re chazo a los alimentos y disfrutarían mejor de una amplia variedad de alimentos. Estos rasgos serían menos ostensible en preescolares que recibieron SLH.

La sub-alimentación emocional (escala 7) está directa mente relacionada con la lentitud para comer (escala 2) en niños que recibieron LMC, esto significa que el niño presenta una ingestión adecuada de alimentos a un ritmo constante aun cuando tenga alguna emoción que le altere. En esta misma escala 7 se observa una asociación inversa con la escala respuesta a los alimen tos (escala 4) en el grupo de preescolares que recibieron SLH. O sea, estos niños mostrarían conductas menos receptivas a la comida cuando se encuentran molestos, cansados o enojados. Podría afirmarse que sus estados de ánimo alteran su relación con los alimentos. A dife rencia de los preescolares que recibieron SLH, aquellos que recibieron LMC, mostraron una correlaciona in versa entre lentitud para comer (escala 2) con irritabi lidad hacia los alimentos (escala 3); con respuesta a los alimentos (escala 4); y disfrute de los alimentos (escala 5); y una correlación directa débil con comer menos con emociones (escala 7). Estos hallazgos significarían que en preescolares que recibieron LMC, a mayor len titud para comer hay menor irritabilidad hacia los ali mentos; en consecuencia, menos alteraciones de conducta alimentaria.

Las 15 correlaciones significativas entre las dife rentes escalas en el grupo de LMC (62.5%) vs solo ocho en el grupo de SLH (37.5%), muestran mayor consistencia y congruencia en los hábitos y conductas alimentarias en los preescolares que recibieron LMC.

Sin embargo, se habría cometido un error tipo II ya que al duplicar las observaciones en forma proporcional en cada una de ellas, se observó una probabilidad 2.7 veces mayor de un número más elevado de correlacio nes entre las escalas en preescolares que recibieron LMC [RM=2.7 (95% 1,2, 6.0), p=0.011].

La principal fortaleza del estudio fue el análisis de dos grupos bien diferenciados en tipo de alimentación pertenecientes a una misma población, con caracterís ticas antropométricas similares. Esta ventaja evitó un sesgo potencial de incluir variables no controladas. Una debilidad sería la probabilidad de haber cometido un error de tipo II debido al tamaño de la muestra, lo que habría afectado a algunas variables socioeconómicas y demográficas y a la sub-escala: irritabilidad hacia los alimentos y a la puntuación total del CEBQ y que ha bría favorecido más al grupo LMC.

El desarrollo de la conducta alimentaria es un pro ceso complejo en el que participan componentes fisio lógicos de regulación del apetito, del crecimiento y peso corporal; de componentes psicológicos del niño, de los padres, de la familia y de componentes culturales y sociales. Por ello, es importante el estudio a mayor profundidad de estas variables porque las alteraciones en la conducta alimentaria en los primeros años de vida influidas por su presencia provocarían desaceleración del crecimiento, aversiones alimentarias y dificultades en la convivencia familiar.

CONCLUSIÓN

Los hallazgos sugieren la existencia de rasgos dife renciados en las conductas alimentarias en preescolares que habrían sido influidos por la alimentación con LMC o SLH durante la etapa lactante. La mayor diver sidad en el consumo de alimentos en la etapa preescolar del grupo que recibió LMC habría sido influida por la exposición a sabores y olores que percibe el lactante cuando es alimentado al pecho materno. La ausencia de asociaciones significativas en algunas escalas y en la puntuación total de la encuesta apoyaría la necesidad de realizar estudios con diferentes poblaciones, estratos socioeconómicos y educacionales en diferentes regio nes del país.

El desarrollo de la conducta alimentaria es un pro ceso complejo en el que participan componentes fisio lógicos de regulación del apetito, del crecimiento y peso corporal; de componentes psicológicos del niño, de los padres, de la familia y de componentes culturales y sociales. Por ello, es importante el estudio a mayor profundidad de estas variables porque las alteraciones en la conducta alimentaria en los primeros años de vida influidas por su presencia provocarían desaceleración del crecimiento, aversiones alimentarias y dificultades en la convivencia familiar.

AGRADECIMIENTOS

Manifestamos nuestro profundo agradecimiento a la LN. Mabel Itzel Macías Jiménez por su apoyo en la aplicación de encuestas y en la medición y evaluación antropométrica.

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14. Nascimento VG, da Silva JP, Ferreira PC, Bertoli CJ, Leone C. Maternal breastfeeding, early introduction of non-breast milk, and excess weight in preschoolers. Rev Paul Pediatr. 2016 Jun 16. doi: 10.1016/j.rpped.2016.05.004.         [ Links ]

15. Ramirez-Silva I, Rivera JA, Trejo-Valdivia B, Marto rell R, Stein AD, Romieu I, et al. Breastfeeding status at age 3 months is associated with adiposity and car diometabolic markers at age 4 years in Mexican chil dren. J Nutr. 2015; 145(6):1295-302.         [ Links ]

16. Schwartz R, Vigo Á, de Oliveira LD, Justo Giugliani ER. The Effect of a Pro-Breastfeeding and Healthy Complementary Feeding Intervention Targeting Ado lescent Mothers and Grandmothers on Growth and Pre valence of Overweight of Preschool Children. PLoS One. 2015; 10(7): e0131884. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131884. eCollection 2015.         [ Links ]

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18. Portela DS, Vieira TO, Matos SM, de Oliveira NF, Vieira GO. Maternal obesity, environmental factors, ce sarean delivery and breastfeeding as determinants of overweight and obesity in children: results from a co hort. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2015; 15: 94. doi: 10.1186/s12884-015-0518-z.         [ Links ]

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23. INEGI. Hogares familiares y hogares no familiares: Vi vimos en hogares diferentes. 2015. Citado el 3 de Agosto de 2016. Disponible en: http://cuentame.inegi.org.mx/poblacion/hogares.aspx?tema=P

24. Betoko A, Charles MA, Hankard R, Forhan A, Bonet M, Saurel-Cubizolles MJ, et al. Infant feeding patterns over the first year of life: influence of family characte ristics. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2013; 67(6):631-7. doi: 10.1038/ejcn.2012.200.         [ Links ]

25. Santos-Torres I, Vasquez-Garibay E, Napoles-Rodrí guez F. Breast feeding habits in marginated neighbor hoods in Guadalajara. Bol Med Hosp Infant Mex. 1990; 47(5): 318-23.         [ Links ]  

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Efecto de una intervención educativa nutricional en un entorno laboral

Natalie Ríos, Margarita Samudio, Fabiana Paredes, Fernando Vio

Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimentos (INTA), Universidad de Chile. Santiago, Chile. Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Salud (IICS), Universidad Nacional de Asunción, Asunción, Paraguay.

RESUMEN

El objetivo fue evaluar el efecto de una intervención educativa nutricional en un entorno laboral. Para ello se realizó un estudio cuasi-experimental, longitudinal, con una intervención educacional de cuatro meses de duración. Participaron 90 trabajadores, 44 mujeres y 46 hombres, edad promedio 29,3 ± 5,4 años, de una empresa de telefonía celular de Asunción-Paraguay. Se efectuaron encuestas de datos clínicos, hábitos alimentarios, actividad física y mediciones antropométricas al inicio y final de la intervención. Para hábitos alimentarios se utilizaron el cuestionario de frecuencia de consumo cuantificado y el registro de consumo alimentario de una semana, ambos previamente validados y utilizados en otras investigaciones. La actividad física se estimó con el Cuestionario Internacional de Actividad Física IPAQ que divide a la misma en tres categorías (baja, moderada y alta). La antropometría incluyó peso, talla, IMC y circunferencia de cintura. La educación nutricional consistió en consultas de consejería individual, concurso para bajar de peso, acciones colectivas de apoyo e intervenciones del entorno del lugar de trabajo. La ingesta de frutas y verduras fue significativamente mayor (p<0,001 y p=0,001); el consumo de pan disminuyó en un 56% (p=0,001); mejoró el estado nutricional (p<0,001) y disminuyó la circunferencia de cintura (p<0,001) al final del estudio. Los niveles de actividad física moderado y alto aumentaron de 43,4% a 59%. Esta intervención integral en el lugar de trabajo, con un concurso para bajar de peso, mejoró el estado nutricional e impactó positivamente en el estilo de vida de los empleados.  

Palabras clave: Enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles, estilos de vida saludable, entornos laborales, educación nutricional, intervención nutricional.

Effect of a nutrition educational intervention in a work environment

SUMMARY.

. The objective is to evaluate a nutrition educational intervention in a work place. This is a quasi-experimental and four- month longitudinal study in 90 participants (44 women and 46 men), average age 29.3 ± 5.4 years, from a telephone company in Asunción, Paraguay. Anthropometry, nutritional assessment and physical activity evaluation were carried out at the beginning and at the end of the intervention. For food habits, a food frequency questionnaire and one-week food consumption registration system were applied, both validated and used previously in other studies. The level of physical activity was measured using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) which divides physical intensity in three levels (low, moderate and high). Anthropometry included weight, height and waist circumference. Nutrition education consisted in individual lifestyle counseling, a contest to lose weight, collective support actions and environmental intervention at the work place. A significant increase of intakes of fruits and vegetables (p<0.001 y p= 0.001 respectively); a 56% reduction in bread consumption (p= 0.001); significantly (p<0.001) improvement of nutritional status, and waist circumference reduction (p<0.001) were observed al the end of the study. High and moderate physical activity improved from 43.4% to 59%. This integral nutrition intervention at the work place with a weight loss contest improved the nutritional status and had a positive impact in the workers life styles.

Key words: Chronic diseases, healthy lifestyles, work places, nutrition education, nutrition intervention.

Recibido: 19-10-2016 Aceptado: 18-01-2017

INTRODUCCIÓN

Las principales causas de morbimortalidad en Paraguay, al igual que en la mayoría de los países de la Región, son las enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles (ECNT) como la enfermedad cardiovascular (ECV), enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica, el cáncer y la diabetes (1).

Según la Primera Encuesta Nacional de Factores de Riesgo de Enfermedades No Transmisibles realizada en Paraguay en el 2011(ENFR 2011), el exceso de peso en la población adulta y en ambos sexos fue del 57,6% y la obesidad del 22,8%.

El costo económico que representan las ECNT para los países es muy alto. En el año 2010 sólo para las ECV a nivel mundial se estimó un gasto de USD 863 mil millones, cifra que se estima aumentará a más de USD 1 billón para el 2030 (2).

El ámbito laboral es un espacio privilegiado para implementar actividades y programas integrales de promoción de la salud y prevención de ECNT, las que deberían estar dirigidas a modificar los determinantes del comportamiento para poder ser exitosas (3).

La Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) llevó a cabo una revisión para determinar los resultados de las intervenciones de los lugares de trabajo relacionados con la dieta y el ejercicio. Los programas integrales resultaron en una reducción del 25-30% en costos médicos y ausentismo en un lapso de tres años y medio (4). Los resultados de algunos de estos programas no se han medido, ya sea por falta de recursos financieros, por no incluir indicadores de evaluación en la formulación de los mismos, o porque se necesitan varios años para dar cuenta de los resultados y del impacto. Sin embargo, entre los que muestran evidencia de éxito, los denominadores comunes fueron el ejercicio, la nutrición y la salud mental, contar con el apoyo de la gerencia y programas gratuitos, tanto grupales como individuales, que incluyan evaluaciones clínicas con un profesional de la salud, asesoramiento nutricional, de actividad física y material de apoyo en línea (5).

En Paraguay, dentro del Plan Nacional de Acción para la Prevención y el Control de las ECNT 20142024 del Ministerio de Salud y Bienestar Social, se enmarca la iniciativa “Ambiente Laboral con Estilo de Vida Saludable”, que certifica empresas por desarrollar programas de promoción y prevención de ECNT, los cuales incluyen cuatro componentes: alimentación saludable, actividad física, ambiente libre de humo de tabaco y consumo nocivo de alcohol (6). Si bien numerosas empresas ya han sido certificadas, no hay trabajos publicados del tipo de actividades que realizan, de las evaluaciones de línea de base ni de resultados, tampoco una metodología de trabajo aplicable y replicable en otras empresas.

Por ello, el objetivo del presente estudio es evaluar el efecto de una intervención educativa nutricional en un entorno laboral, en relación al aumento del consumo de frutas y verduras, de actividad física y disminución del consumo de panificados, para mejorar el estado nutricional y la calidad de vida de los trabajadores.

MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS

Diseño de la investigación

Estudio cuasi-experimental, longitudinal, en trabajadores hombres y mujeres de una empresa de telefonía celular de Asunción, Paraguay, realizado entre noviembre de 2015 y febrero de 2016, donde se evaluó una intervención en educación nutricional con mediciones al inicio y al final, siguiendo la metodología de la “evaluación por adecuación” para medir impacto en programas de salud pública, descrita por Habicht et al. (7).

Sujetos

Tamaño de la muestra

La estimación del tamaño de la muestra se basó en las diferencias esperadas en el consumo diario de frutas, verduras y panificados, en base a la diferencia reportada entre la evaluación inicial y final del estudio “Evaluación de una intervención educativa nutricional en trabajadores de la construcción para prevenir enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles en Chile” (8), que fue un incremento de 62,4 gramos para frutas y verduras y una disminución de 44,4 gramos de panificados. Para una potencia del 90% y un nivel de significación del 5%, el número mínimo estimado fue de 90 sujetos, cuyas características están descritas en la Tabla 1.

Selección de la muestra

La selección fue por conveniencia, a través de la invitación a las personas que deseaban participar por correo electrónico y carteles informativos distribuidos en la empresa, seleccionando a cada individuo de acuerdo con los criterios de inclusión hasta alcanzar el número definido de participantes.

Criterios de inclusión y exclusión

Trabajadores del sexo masculino y femenino, mayores de 18 años de edad, trabajar al menos seis horas en la empresa, realizar exclusivamente trabajos de oficina, no ser pasantes y no tener patologías que imposibiliten la práctica de actividad física dentro del programa.

Las personas inscritas recibieron información acerca del estudio y firmaron el consentimiento informado aprobado por el Comité de ética del Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimentos (INTA) de la Universidad de Chile.

MÉTODOS

Mediciones de Presión Arterial y Antropometría

La presión arterial (PA), se obtuvo con un esfingomanómetro (ASPEN AS102, Wenzhou, China), clasificándose hipertensión una presión sistólica ≥ 140 mmHg o diastólica ≥ 90 mmHg, de acuerdo al Consenso Paraguayo de Hipertensión Arterial 2015, elaborado por la Sociedad Paraguaya de Cardiología y Cirugía Cardiovascular en conjunto con el Programa Nacional de Prevención Cardiovascular del MSPyBS.

El peso se midió con ropa liviana en una balanza (Seca elegantia 815, Hamburgo, Alemania) con 100 g de precisión, calibrada antes de iniciar las mediciones, y la talla se midió con un estadiómetro portátil adosado a la pared (Seca 217, Hamburgo, Alemania) con precisión 0,1 cm. Se calculó el índice de Masa Corporal (IMC) en kg/m2 y se clasificó el estado nutricional según la norma de la OMS en bajo peso (< 18,5), normopeso (18,5 a 24,9), sobrepeso (25 a 29,9), obesidad I (30-34,9), obesidad II (35-39,9), obesidad III (≥ 40) (9).

La circunferencia de cintura (CC) se midió con cinta métrica (Seca 203, Hamburgo, Alemania) de 0,1 cm de precisión, considerando por encima del rango un valor ≥ 88cm en las mujeres y ≥ 102cm en los hombres.

Encuestas

Se efectuaron encuestas de datos demográficos, calidad de vida, percepción de la alimentación, hábitos alimentarios, tabaquismo, sedentarismo, una encuesta de frecuencia de consumo cuantificado (EFCC) y un registro alimentario de una semana. Se utilizaron preguntas de calidad de vida de la Primera Encuesta Nacional sobre Empleo, Trabajo, Salud y Calidad de Vida de los Trabajadores y Trabajadoras en Chile (ENETS) 2010 (10).

La actividad física se estimó a través del Cuestionario Internacional de Actividad Física IPAQ versión corta (11), que mide el nivel de actividad física expresado en MET-minutos/semana o a través de niveles de actividad física bajo, moderado o alto. El presente trabajo se expresa en niveles de actividad física considerando los siguientes puntos de corte para cada una de ellas:

Categoría baja: aquellos individuos que no se pueden situar en los criterios de las categorías moderada o alta fueron considerados como un nivel de actividad física “baja”.

Categoría moderada: a) tres días o más de actividad física de intensidad vigorosa al menos 20 minutos por día o b) cinco o más días de intensidad física moderada y/o andar al menos 30 minutos por día o c) cinco o más días de cualquier combinación de andar, actividad de intensidad moderada y actividad de intensidad vigorosa sumando un mínimo total de actividad física de al menos 600 MET-minutos/semana.

Categoría alta: a) actividades de intensidad vigorosa al menos tres días por semana sumando un mínimo total de actividad física de al menos 1500 MET-minutos/semana o b) siete o más días de cualquier combinación de andar, intensidad moderada o actividades de intensidad vigorosa sumando un mínimo total de actividad física de al menos 3000 MET-minutos/semana.

Las encuestas y mediciones fueron realizadas por nutricionistas entrenadas y con experiencia en este tipo de mediciones.

Intervención educativa nutricional

La intervención fue diseñada en base al modelo ecológico social que considera los factores internos de la persona e institucionales, los procesos interpersonales, además de los factores comunitarios y las políticas públicas. La intervención consistió en sesiones de consejería individual y acciones colectivas de apoyo a la alimentación saludable con un “Concurso de descenso de peso” con tres categorías según objetivo de descenso establecido (tres a cinco kg; seis a 10 y más de 10 kg) divididos por sexo. Cada participante acudió a seis encuentros de 30 minutos de duración de consejería en vida sana, a cargo de especialistas en nutrición, en un periodo de cuatro meses.

Consejería individual

En el primer encuentro el profesional de nutrición realizó una encuesta orientada a analizar los factores individuales, familiares y del contexto laboral que influyen en la alimentación. En cada consulta el participante recibió un plan alimentario personalizado diseñado por el profesional; recomendaciones sobre el consumo moderado de grasas, azúcares simples y panificados; motivación para aumentar el consumo de frutas y verduras y realizar actividad física. Además, se le proporcionó de material educativo con información nutricional y junto con ello una planilla para el registro diario de ingesta alimentaria y de la actividad física realizada, la cual debía ser completada todos los días hasta la siguiente consulta, la misma servía para evaluar avances, determinar aspectos a mejorar y establecer objetivos en cada encuentro.

Acciones colectivas de apoyo a la alimentación saludable

Desde el departamento de Recursos Humanos (RRHH) se enviaron semanalmente mensajes de texto saludables al celular de todos los participantes. Además, podían hacer preguntas a los profesionales a través de correo electrónico o whatsapp entre una consulta de consejería nutricional y otra durante el tiempo que duró la intervención.

En forma simultánea se realizaron auditorías a la cocina-comedor para conocer la situación de trabajo y el tipo de menú ofrecido. A partir de estos resultados se elaboró un menú para almuerzos y cenas y se diseñaron opciones saludables para desayunos y meriendas, incorporando frutas y verduras, cereales integrales, legumbres, pescado, pollo y disminuyendo preparaciones con carnes rojas.

En total se realizaron tres visitas de monitoreo para asegurar que se cumpliese lo acordado. Por otro lado, se realizaron envíos de mensajes saludables semanalmente a través del celular y acciones en la cocina comedor, como colocación de afiches con consejos desarrollados en las sesiones de consejería, elaboración de opciones saludables de menú y capacitación en buenas prácticas de manufactura a los empleados que elaboran la alimentación.

Análisis estadístico

Para el análisis de los datos se utilizó el programa estadítico SPSS versión 11.5 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, EEUU). Se utilizó estadística descriptiva para presentar las características generales de los participantes. Posterior a la aplicación de la prueba de normalidad de Kolmogorov-Smirnov, se llevó a cabo la comparación del consumo de frutas, verduras y panificados pre y post intervención, utilizando las pruebas pareadas t de student o prueba de los rangos con signo de Wilcoxon según tenga o no distribución normal. El nivel de significación estadística para esta investigación se estableció en p<0,05.

RESULTADOS

En la Tabla 2 se presenta el efecto de la intervención sobre el estado nutricional por sexo, observándose una disminución significativa del IMC y la circunferencia de cintura en ambos sexos; no se observaron cambios significativos en la PA.

  En la Tabla 3 se muestra el consumo de alimentos, destacando el incremento significativo en el consumo de frutas y verduras en la evaluación final. Por otro lado se aprecia una disminución significativa en el consumo de pan, carnes rojas, cereales, cecinas, bebidas azucaradas, mayonesa, chocolate, azúcar/miel, golosinas dulces y saladas.

En la Tabla 4 se observa que el consumo calórico diario total disminuyó en promedio 810,3 calorías desde el inicio al final de la intervención, lo cual también se refleja en una disminución significativa en el FIGURA 1. Nivel de actividad física en la evaluación inicial y final de los participantes del estudio presentaba categoría baja se redujo a 41,1% y del 43,3% que tenía actividad física moderada o alta aumentó a 58,8%.

DISCUSIÓN

Las investigaciones en promoción de la salud y prevención de ECNT en el lugar de trabajo tienen gran importancia para mejorar la calidad de vida de los trabajadores y disminuir el riesgo de adquirir dichas enfermedades. Los lugares de trabajo, junto a las escuelas, son los mejores espacios de intervención para acciones de Promoción de Salud, en particular en los temas relacionados con la alimentación, actividad física y lugares libres de humo de tabaco por ser donde los niños y adultos pasan una parte significativa de su tiempo (12,13)

Debido a que en Paraguay no hay datos publicados al respecto, se diseñó este estudio para evaluar efectividad de una intervención educativa nutricional en empleados administrativos de una empresa de telefonía celular por ser considerada representativa del trabajo en oficinas. A pesar del corto tiempo de la intervención, los resultados obtenidos muestran cambios significativos en el estado nutricional y la CC, lo cual coincide con los resultados publicados en una revisión sistemática (14), que mostró que aquellos programas con duración entre dos y 18 meses que hacían hincapié en consejería nutricional y actividad física, daban lugar a un descenso no mayor a seis kilos.

Por otro lado, se ha visto que en el área del control de peso, los programas implementados en los lugares de trabajo por lo general presentaron altos niveles de deserción y la mitad de la pérdida de peso en comparación con programas similares en la clínica (15). Por esta razón en este estudio se utilizó como estrategia motivacional un “Concurso de descenso de peso” realizado dentro de la compañía, sin costo económico para el trabajador, con premiación a los ganadores, lo cual resultó altamente motivador para los participantes y sin dudas contribuyó con el logro de los objetivos. Esto coincide con los resultados presentados en un estudio de tan solo 12 semanas de duración, donde tanto los empleados como los gerentes reportaron que la competencia fue motivadora y clave para el éxito del programa (16).

La motivación se notó además con el incremento de la actividad física en los niveles moderado y alto y la disminución del nivel bajo como se observa en la mayoría de las investigaciones de promoción de salud en el lugar de trabajo con impacto en el pérdida de peso y la actividad física. (17) . En este sentido sería interesante promover medidas para que la actividad física de los empleados sea considerada una política permanente en la empresa.

El aumento significativo en el consumo de frutas y verduras es importante, e inclusive mayor que lo reportado en numerosos estudios que evaluaron el impacto de las actividades de promoción del consumo de frutas y verduras en el lugar de trabajo (18,19). Un aspecto que cabe destacar fue que aquellos que reportaron seguir comiendo entre comidas, lo hacían consumiendo principalmente frutas.

En una revisión que evaluaba los efectos de las intervenciones en el lugar de trabajo sobre la dieta, se encontraron cambios positivos, no sólo en el consumo de frutas y verduras, sino también en la ingesta total de grasas similares a los reportados en esta investigación (20).

En este estudio además se reportó una disminución en la ingesta de panificados, bebidas azúcaradas y alimentos altos en azúcares simples, como las bebidas azucaradas y golosinas dulces y saladas. Esto contrasta con un estudio realizado en Chile en trabajadores de la construcción, donde no hubo cambio en el consumo de bebidas gaseosas azucaradas (8). Esto probablemente se deba al tipo de trabajo que realizan los trabajadores de construcción.

Llama la atención el bajo consumo calórico al inicio de la intervención, por estar la muestra formada en su mayoría por personas con sobrepeso y obesidad; esto puede deberse a que los sujetos obesos subestiman el consumo calórico habitual en los reportes de ingesta (21), sumado a que un año antes de la intervención, este grupo recibió charlas educativas sobre factores de riesgo, lo cual pudo haber dado lugar al sesgo de responder en las encuestas lo que se considera correcto, de acuerdo a la educación recibida y no lo que realmente comieron, como sucedió en el estudio de los mineros de Chile (22).

Estudios de casos reportados por Quintiliani y col. (23) evidencian que el modelo ecológico social puede ser útil en el diseño y evaluación de los efectos de la Promoción de Salud en el ámbito laboral. Este estudio fue diseñado en base al modelo menciondo, teniendo en cuenta tanto la dimensión individual como la colectiva, por lo que cabe destacar que todas las sugerenicas propuestas a la gerencia, tales como modificación del menú, carteles educativos en el comedor, capacitación al personal de cocina, envío de mensajes saludables a través del celular, entre otras actividades, fueron realizadas en tiempo y forma. Para ello, el departamento de RRHH se mostró abierto a las propuestas y sugerencias, acompañando de cerca y en forma permanente todas las etapas del proyecto, lo cual fue una gran fortaleza del estudio y contribuyó al éxito de la intervención.

Otras fortalezas del estudio fueron la elaboración de un proyecto de acuerdo a las necesidades de la población objetivo; la recolección cuidadosa de los datos al inicio, en el proceso y al finalizar la intervención con la descripción detallada de todas las acciones realizadas en cada etapa; el logro de los objetivos propuestos; por lo tanto este estudio puede considerarse ser un modelo de intervención en entornos laborales factible de aplicar en otras empresas del país. Por último, este estudio es el primero y único en el rubro empresas de Paraguay.

Entre las limitaciones se pueden mencionar en primer lugar la selección de la muestra por conveniencia, por ser la única opción disponible para la realización del estudio. En segundo lugar, la falta de un grupo control no permitió hacer comparación con un grupo similar por lo que la efectividad se calculó comparando datos basales y post intervención, de acuerdo a la metodología descrita por Habicht et al. (7).

A pesar de estas limitaciones, los resultados son muy alentadores y demostraron la factibilidad de implementar este tipo de programas en lugares de trabajo, lo cual puede constituirse en un modelo para futuras intervenciones en otras empresas.

Con este estudio se puede concluir que una intervención correctamente realizada en una empresa, con el apoyo de los directivos, del departamento de RR.HH y con un personal técnico de buen nivel, pueden obtenerse resultados positivos con cambios en el estado nutricional y en los hábitos alimentarios de los trabajadores de la empresa. Las metodologías empleadas demostraron ser efectivas, en especial el concurso para bajar de peso, que fue una herramienta motivacional muy bien recibida y estimulante para que los empleados cumplieran las metas de bajar de peso y realizar mayor cantidad de actividad física.

Es necesario seguir investigando para contar con más información sobre los estilos de vida saludable, así como también conocer la prevalencia en ECNT y los factores de riesgo que predominan en las empresas del país, para realizar intervenciones efectivas.

REFERENCIAS

1. Ministerio de Salud Pública y Bienestar Social. Indicadores Básicos de Salud: Paraguay 2013.Asunción: MSPyBS;2013.         [ Links ]

2. Bloom DE, Cafiero ET, Jané-Llopis E, Abrahams-Gessel S, Bloom LR, Fathima S, et al. The Global Economic Burden of Non-communicable Diseases.Geneva: World Economic Forum;2011.         [ Links ]

3. Organización Mundial de la Salud. Impact of out-ofpocket payments for treatment of non-communicable diseases in developing countries: A review of literature. Discussion Paper No.2.Geneva:WHO;2011.

4. Organización Mundial de la Salud. WHO Healthy Workplace, Framework and Model: Background and Supporting Literature and Practices. Geneva:WHO; 2010.         [ Links ]

5. Blackford K, Jancey J, Howat P, Ledger M, Lee AH. Office-based physical activity and nutrition intervention: barriers, enablers, and preferred strategies for workplace obesity prevention, Perth, Western Australia, 2012.Prev Chronic Dis.2013;10:13-24.         [ Links ]

6. Ministerio de Salud Pública y Bienestar Social. Plan Nacional de Acción para la Prevención y el Control de las Enfermedades Crónicas No Transmisibles 20142024. Paraguay. Asunción: MSPyBS;2014.

7. Habicht JP, Victora C and Vaughan J. Evaluation designs for adequacy, plausibility and probability of public health programme performance and impact. Int J Epidemiol. 1999;28:10-8.         [ Links ]

8. Salinas J, Lera L, González CG, Vio F. Evaluación de una intervención educativa nutricional en trabajadores de la construcción para prevenir enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles en Chile. Rev Med Chil.2016;144:194-201.         [ Links ]

9. WHO Expert Consultation. Lancet.2004;363:157-63.         [ Links ]

10. Ministerios de Salud, Dirección del Trabajo, Instituto de Seguridad Laboral. Primera encuesta nacional de empleo, trabajo, salud y calidad de vida de los trabajadores y trabajadoras en Chile Informe interinstitucional (ENETS 2009-2010) [Internet]. Chile: Gobierno de Chile; 2011 [consultado 5 Jul 2015]. p. 160. Disponible en: http://www.isl.gob.cl/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Informe-Final-ENETS-nterinstitucional.pdf        [ Links ]

11. Craig CL, Marshall AL, Sjostrom M, Bauman AE, Booth ML, Ainsworth BE, et al. International physical activity questionnaire: 12-country reliability and validity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003;35:1381-95.         [ Links ]

12. Organización Internacional del Trabajo. Un enfoque integral para mejorar la alimentación y nutrición en el trabajo. Estudio en empresas chilenas y recomendaciones adaptadas. Santiago:OIT;2012.         [ Links ]

13. Organización Mundial de la Salud. Ambientes de Trabajo Saludables: Un Modelo para la Acción. Para empleadores, trabajadores, autoridades normativas y profesionales. Ginebra: OMS/OPS; 2010.         [ Links ]

14. Benedict M, Arterburn D. Worksite-based weight loss programs: a systematic review of recent literature. Am J Health Promot.2008;22:408-16.         [ Links ]

15. Foreyt JP, Scott LW, Gotto AM: Weight control and nutrition education programs in occupational settings. Public Health Rep.1980;95:127-36.         [ Links ]

16. Stunkard AJ, Brownell KD: Work site treatment for obesity. Am J Psychiatry.1980; 137:252-3.         [ Links ]

17. Organización Mundial de la Salud. Recomendaciones mundiales sobre la actividad física para la salud. Suiza:OMS;2010.         [ Links ]

18. Da Silva A, Rugani I, Blumenberg D.Impact of the promotion of fruit and vegetables on their consumption in the workplace. Rev Saúde Pública.2013;47:29-36.         [ Links ]

19. Bandoni D, Sarno F, Constante P. Impact of an intervention on the availability and consumption of fruits and vegetables in the workplace. Public Health Nutr.2011;14:975-81.         [ Links ]

20. Ni Mhurchu C, Aston L, Jebb S.Effects of worksite health promotion interventions on employee diets:a systematic review.BMC Public Health.2010;10:62.         [ Links ]

21. Johansson G, Wikman A, Ahrén AM, Hallmans G, Johansson I. Underreporting of energy intake in repeated 24-hour recalls related to gender, age, weight status, day of interview, educational level, reported food intake, smoking habits and area of living. Public Health Nutr.2001;4:919-27.         [ Links ]

22. Caichac A, Mediano, Blanco G, Lydia Yáñez CG, Vio F. Intervención en alimentación y nutrición para mineros con factores de riesgo cardiovascular, basada en la investigación formativa.Rev Chil Nutr.2013;40:336-32.         [ Links ]

23. Quintiliani L, Poulsen S, Sorensen G. Healthy Eating Strategies in the Workplace. Int J Workplace Health Manag.2010;3:182-96.         [ Links ]

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Fibra dietaria: nuevas definiciones, propiedades funcionales y beneficios para la salud. Revisión

 

Fulgencio Vilcanqui-Pérez, Carlos Vílchez-Perales

Departamento de Nutrición, Universidad Nacional Agraria la Molina, La Molina, Lima, Perú.

  Escuela Académico Profesional de Ingeniería Agroindustrial, Universidad Nacional Micaela Bastidas de Apurímac, Abancay, Apurímac, Perú.

RESUMEN

En los últimos diez años hubo importantes modificaciones en la definición de la fibra dietaria bajo la dirección de la Comisión del CODEX Alimentarius. El más importante fue la inclusión de los carbohidratos no digeribles de 3 a 9 unidades de grado de polimerización dentro de la definición química, la que fue adoptada algunos países y en otras están en proceso de evaluación tal como los Estados Unidos; lo que hace que no exista un consenso global. Donde sí hay un consenso es en la definición fisiológica de la fibra dietaria, considerada como grupo de carbohidratos resistentes a la digestión por las enzimas del intestino delgado y fermentado en forma parcial o total en el colon, con efectos favorables en la salud. La Association of Official Analytical Chemist (siglas en Inglés: AOAC), en armonía con la nueva definición del CODEX Alimentarius, establecieron los métodos AOAC 2009.01 y 2011.25, diseñado para cuantificar la fibra dietaria solubles, fibra dietaria insoluble y la fibra dietaria total. En este contexto, se vienen desarrollando investigaciones in vitro e in vivo (en animales y humanos) para demostrar los efectos fisicoquímicos, funcionales y fisiológicos que van orientados hacia la prevención y tratamiento de algunas enfermedades no transmisible (ENTs). La presente revisión, pretende informar de las nuevas definiciones y los métodos de análisis, las propiedades funcionales y fisiológicas de la fibra dietaria y sus efectos en la salud humana.

Palabras clave: Fibra dietaria. Definición. Propiedades funcionales. Propiedades fisiológicas. Sobrepeso y obesidad.

Dietary fiber: New definitions, functional properties and health benefits. Review

SUMMARY.

In the last ten years there have been important changes in the definition of dietary fiber under the leadership of the CODEX Alimentarius Commission. The most important was the inclusion of non-digestible carbohydrates of 3 to 9 units of degree of polymerization within the chemical definition, which was adopted in some countries and in others are in the process of evaluation such as the United States which indicates that does not exist a global consensus. Where there is a consensus is in the physiological definition of dietary fiber, considered as a group of carbohydrates resistant to the digestion by enzymes of the small intestine and fermented partially or totally in the colon, with favorable health effects. The Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC), in line with the new definition of CODEX Alimentarius, established the AOAC 2009.01 and 2011.25 methods, designed to quantify soluble dietary fiber, insoluble dietary fiber and total dietary fiber. In this context, In Vitro and In Vivo research (in animals and humans) are being carried out to demonstrate the physicochemical, functional and physiological effects that are directed towards the prevention and treatment of some non-communicable diseases (NCDs). This review aims to inform the new definitions and methods of analysis, the functional and physiological properties of dietary fiber and their effects on human health.

Key words: Dietary fiber. Definition. Functional properties. Physiology properties. Overweight and obesity.

Recibido: 30-10-2016 Aceptado: 21-03-2017

INTRODUCCIÓN

Hay un gran interés por conocer los conceptos, la clasificación, los métodos de análisis, las propiedades fisicoquímicas, funcionales, fisiológicas y sus efectos en la salud de la fibra dietaria, como una respuesta al incremento de las ENTs. Los organismo oficiales como el CODEX Alimentarius Commission (CAC), the United States Institute of Medicine (IOM), Health Canadá, European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Food Standars Australia and New zealand (FSANz), y American Association of Cereal Chemists International (AACCI), entre otros, se han preocupado por uniformizar la definición de la fibra dietaria, basados en la composición química y el rol fisiológico que cumple a favor de la salud (1). En 2009, el CODEX Alimentarius ha incluido dentro de la definición de la fibra dietaria a moléculas de bajo peso molecular todas ellas con funciones importantes a favor de la salud humana. La clasificación y los métodos de análisis también han

experimentado modificaciones conforme a las definiciones que fueron adoptando a lo largo del tiempo, pero principalmente en el método enzimático-gravimétrico (2). Existen recientes investigaciones con nuevas fuentes de fibra dietaria bajo la luz de los conocimientos de su grado de solubilidad, capacidades de hidratación y fermentación y el tamaño del peso molecular; con efectos importantes sobre las propiedades fisiológicas. Al mismo tiempo se han identificado los diferentes mecanismos de regulación del sobrepeso y la obesidad, el índice glucémico y diabetes tipo II, cáncer en el colon, estreñimiento y enfermedad cardiovascular; en conjunto conocidos como ENTs.

FIBRA DIETARIA: DEFINICIÓN, CLASIFICACIÓN Y MÉTODOS DE ANÁLISIS

Definición

La definición de la “fibra dietaria” se remonta al año 1953 realizada por Hipsley, refiriéndose al constituyente no digerible de las paredes celulares de los vegetales (3); desde entonces, el concepto ha sido objeto de varias revisiones. Más adelante (1960 a 1970), se propone la hipótesis de la relación entre el consumo inadecuado de la fibra dietaria y algunas enfermedades de los países desarrollados. En este mismo periodo, se define a la fibra dietaria como la suma de polisacáridos de origen vegetal constituidos por celulosa, hemicelulosa y lignina, que no son digeridas por las secreciones endógenas del tracto digestivo de los mamíferos (4) y Trowell en 1985, incluye a los oligosacáridos, pectinas, gomas y ceras (5). En 2000, la AACC define a la fibra dietaria como las partes comestibles de las plantas o análogos de los carbohidratos resistentes a la digestión y absorción en el intestino delgado humano y con fermentación parcial o completa en el intestino grueso, en cuya composición se incluyen a polisacáridos, oligosacáridos, lignina y sustancias asociadas a las plantas (5). Desde el punto de vista de la salud, la fibra dietaria debe promover efectos atenuantes de los niveles de colesterol y glucosa, estos últimos relacionados con la diabetes tipo 2, obesidad, cáncer del colon y enfermedades cardiovasculares (6-9). Como se pudo evidenciar, la definición de la fibra dietaria ha sido abordada en diferentes periodos, sin encontrar un consenso. En el año 2009, después de dos décadas de discusión, el CODEX Alimentarius, a través de sus delegados científicos, pretende armonizar la definición. Entre los más importantes fue la inclusión de polímeros no digeribles de 3 a 9 grados de polimerización, tales como la inulina, FOS, GOS, maltodextrinas resistentes, rafinosa y otros. Al mismo tiempo, ha reconocido a la lignina y otros componentes menores (polifenoles, ceras, saponinas, fitatos, cutinas y fitoesteroles) como parte de la fibra dietaria, siempre en cuando estén asociados a los componentes de la pared celular vegetal (10-13). Sin embargo, el dilema persiste porque al final de la definición del CODEX Alimentarius, se hace notar de la libertad que tendrían las autoridades competentes de cada país respecto a la inclusión de carbohidratos de 3 a 9 unidades monoméricas. Los países como Canadá, Australia, Nueva zelanda, Unión Europea, Brasil, Chile, China, Indonesia, Corea, Malasia, México y Tailandia adoptaron la sugerencias; sin embargo, países como los Estados Unidos de América están a la espera de la decisión de la autoridad competente (14,10,1). Por lo tanto, no existe una definición química generalizada de la fibra dietaria, más aún cuando existen sugerencias de la exclusión de estos polímeros de bajo peso molecular. Donde sí existe consenso es en la definición fisiológica considerada como grupo de polímeros y oligómeros de carbohidratos (incluyendo a lignina) que escapan a la digestión del intestino delgado y pasan al intestino grueso, donde son fermentados en forma parcial o completa por la microbiota intestinal. Además las fibras deben evidenciar efectos de laxación, atenuación de los niveles de glucosa en la sangre y la reducción del colesterol (5).

2.2. Clasificación y métodos de análisis de la fibra dietaria

La forma más sencilla de clasificar a la fibra dietaria es de acuerdo a su grado de hidratación con el agua: solubles e insolubles (15,8,10). Otro criterio de clasificación es de acuerdo al grado de fermentación por las enzimas del intestino humano (14). Existe una estrecha relación entre las propiedades de solubilidad y fermentación; por ejemplo, dentro de las fibras dietarias de bajo peso molecular (siglas en Inglés: LMWDF) de 3 a 9 grados de polimerización se encuentran la inulina, FOS, GOS que son solubles y altamente fermentables (10). En cambio, dentro de las fibras solubles de alto peso molecular (siglas en Inglés: HMWDF) mayores a 9 grados de polimerización se encuentran las altamente fermentables tales como los almidones resistentes en sus diferentes tipos, pectina, goma guar y otros. Dentro de las fibras HMWDF con fermentación intermedia está la avena. Además, en el grupo HMWDF se encuentran las fibras insolubles con baja o escaza fermentación tales como salvado de trigo, frutas y verduras; finalmente, las HMWDF insolubles no fermentables están la celulosa, lignina y metilcelulosa (16,10). En la Tabla 1, se puede observar la distribución de la fibra dietaria de acuerdo al peso molecular, precisando que la inulina proveniente de las plantas puede tener desde 3 hasta 200 grados de polimerización y forman soluciones de baja viscosidad (17). Las fibras insolubles pueden ser convertidas en fibras solubles mediante tratamientos químicos, pero con modificaciones en el aspecto sensorial; sin embargo, tratamientos con trichoderma (organismo productor de enzimas celulolíticas) han sido probados con mucho éxito y se ha logrado el incremento en tres veces el contenido de fibra soluble, sin disminuir el contenido total de fibra dietaria (18). Algunos investigadores consideran que el criterio de clasificación de soluble e insoluble de la fibra debe quedar obsoleta y proponen su reemplazo por viscosos y no viscosos o fermentables y no fermentables, precisamente porque no todas las fibras solubles tienen la misma capacidad viscosa, tal como la inulina que forma solución de baja viscosidad (19); sin embargo, el criterio de clasificación por su grado de hidratación seguirá siendo pertinente y vigente, puesto que las propiedades fisicoquímicas, los efectos funcionales y fisiológicos dependen del grado de solubilidad.

Tan importante como la definición de fibra dietaria, es identificar los métodos apropiados para cuantificar su contenido, pues los alimentos tienen diferentes tipos de fibra; esto implica que las cantidades pueden sobre o sub estimarse cuando no hay una selección apropiada. Los métodos se pueden resumir en no enzimático-gravimétrico, enzimático-gravimétrico, enzimático-químico, enzimático-colorimétrico y enzimático-cromatográfico (2). El método no enzimático-gravimétrico fue el primero en su diseño por los años sesenta con cierta vigencia, pues en el análisis proximal de alimentos para animales y humanos aún es utilizado y conocido como la “fibra cruda” o “fibra bruta”; que viene a ser el residuo de la digestión ácida y alcalina. Entre otros métodos también están los tratamientos con bromuro de cetyl trimetil amonio conocido como fibra ácido detergente (FAD) y con lauril sulfato de sodio como fibra neutro detergente (FND), diseñados específicamente para cuantificar la celulosa, hemicelulosa y lignina (20-21,2). Los tratamientos con ácidos y detergentes han sido cuestionados debido al uso de reactivos muy agresivo puesto que durante la hidrólisis de proteínas y almidones también lo hacían con algunas fibras, dando como resultados la subestimación de una buena cantidad de fibra dietaria, por lo que no es recomendable para alimentos.

Desde 1985 el método oficial para medir la fibra total, fibra dietaria soluble e insoluble es el método AOAC 985.29 (enzimático-gravimétrico), que consisteen la digestión de los carbohidratos y proteínas por las enzimas (13,22). Este método permite cuantificar a la fibra dietaria de alto peso molecular, lignina, algunos almidones resistentes, inulina; pero subestima por ejemplo a las maltodextrinas resistentes y algunos oligosacáridos (1). Así, se fueron diseñando varios métodos reconocidos por la AOAC, pero todos ellos con algunas limitaciones. Los métodos más recientes adoptados por la AOAC son la AOAC 2009.01 y AOAC 2011.25; métodos que tienen las mejores aproximaciones porque permite cuantificar a polisacáridos no almidonosos, lignina, almidones resistentes, inulina, oligosacáridos, polidextrosa y maltodextrinas resistentes, acorde con la nueva defición (1); razón por el cual, estos últimos son los más utilizados, tanto para trabajos de investigación y con fines de etiquetado de alimentos.

PROPIEDADES FUNCIONALES DE LAS FIBRAS DIETARIAS

Solubilidad y viscosidad

Las propiedades de solubilidad y viscosidad tienen profundos efectos en la funcionalidad de fibra dietaria durante el procesamiento de alimentos y en el trayecto gastrointestinal (23). Si la estructura del polisacárido es tal que las moléculas forman una matriz cristalina (celulosa), es muy probable que sea energéticamente más estables, es decir insolubles; y por el contrario mientras sea mayor la ramificación (goma de acacia), con presencia de grupos iónicos (pectina metoxilada) incrementan la solubilidad. Las alteraciones en las unidades de monosacáridos y sus formas moleculares (goma xantana y goma de acacia) incrementan la solubilidad (5).

La viscosidad se describe como la resistencia al flujo cuando se aplica un esfuerzo de corte. En general, con el aumento del peso molecular y la longitud de la cadena (goma guar), incrementa la viscosidad de la solución de la fibra; sin embargo, dependen también de la concentración de la fibra dietaria en la solución, la temperatura, el pH y las condiciones del esfuerzo de corte. La formación de la viscosidad y geles del contenido estomacal juegan un rol importante en los efectos fisiológicos y bioquímicos, puesto que al formar una estructura tridimensional, reduce el contacto físico entre las enzimas digestivas y los nutrientes que son arrastrados por la materia fecal sin haber sido digeridos y absorbidos a través del intestino (5,24).

Fermentabilidad

La fermentación de la fibra dietaria varía de acuerdo al grado de solubilidad desde una fermentación completa (pectina), pasando por fermentación mediana (hemicelulosa) y hasta una fermentación nula (lignina). La fermentación es producida por la microbiota intestinal, principalmente por los microorganismos anaeróbicos distribuidos en dos phylus: Firmicutes ( Ruminococcus, Clostridium, Eubacterium, Lactobacillus ) con 60 %, Bacteroidetes (Alistipes, Prevotella, Bacteriodes) con 15 % y con un número significativo de Actinobacteria (Bifidobacterium) y Protobacteria (25). La fermentación de la fibra dietaria juega un rol importante en los efectos fisiológicos y bioquímicos (regulación del sobrepeso y la obesidad) puesto que a partir de ella se producen los ácidos grasos de cadena corta (AGCC) tales como el butirato, propionato y acetato; metabolitos que están involucrados con la promoción y/o inhibición de ciertas hormonas responsables de la estimulación de saciedad y apetito (26,27). La manzana con alto contenido de pectina, el plátano y los tubérculos con altos contenidos de almidón resistente, han demostrado una fermentación rápida y completa; sin embargo, todos ellos contribuyen escasamente con el aumento del volumen fecal. Por otro lado, el Psyllium y el salvado de trigo fermentan lentamente; y están más asociados al incremento de la masa y volumen fecal (23).

Capacidad de hidratación

Las propiedades de hidratación determinan en gran medida el destino de la fibra dietaria en el tracto digestivo y representan algunos de los efectos fisiológicos (5). Las fibras solubles como la pectina, los βglucanos, algunas hemicelulosas, la goma de acacia y entre otros, forman con el agua un retículo, lo que origina soluciones de gran viscosidad que atrapan moléculas de grasa y evitan el contacto con las sales biliares resultando en modificación del metabolismo lipídico, disminución de lipoproteínas formadoras de placas, reducción del colesterol y disminución de glucosa postprandial. También es conocido de su potencial anticarcinógeno debido a que atrapan diversas sustancias tóxicas que se introducen a través de los alimentos, evitando que entren en contacto con la mucosa intestinal y favorece su eliminación a través de las heces (16). En varias investigaciones, se han reportado la propiedad de hidratación expresada en la capacidad de absorción del agua (CAA), capacidad de retención del agua (CRA) y la capacidad de hinchamiento (CH), propie dades que proveen información útil para las aplicaciones tecnológicas, funcionales y nutricionales (28). En la Tabla 2 se pueden observar que las fuentes de fibra de tipo soluble son las que tienen mejores propiedades de hidratación tal como el musgo ( Sphagnum magellanicum ), el albedo de maracuyá, éste último debido al alto contenido de pectina; sin embargo, no es el único factor que influye sobre esta propiedad, pues también dependen del área específica de superficie, porosidad, densidad, tamaño de partículas y la microestructura de la fibra (29).

Capacidad de adsorción de moléculas orgánicas

La capacidad de adsorción de grasa es otra de las propiedades importantes de la fibra dietaria con fines de estabilización de emulsiones en el procesamiento de alimentos con alto contenido de grasa, al igual que para observar los efectos fisiológicos en humanos (30). La fibras dietarias ricas en ácidos urónicos y compuestos fenólicos, tienen la capacidad de secuestrar e incluso unirse químicamente a los ácidos biliares, mecanismo más sugerido de su acción hipocolesterolemiante. Sin embargo, las condiciones ambientales (tiempo de exposición, el pH), las formas físicas, químicas, las propiedades de superficie y la naturaleza de los ácidos biliares también influyen en la capacidad de adsorción (5). La capacidad de adsorción de grasa se cuantifica por la adición a la muestra seca de la fibra un exceso de aceite, homogenizado; luego por el centrifugado. Por diferencia de pesos se obtiene el valor de esta propiedad. Otra técnica para determinar la capacidad de adsorción de moléculas orgánicas es a través de la medida del índice de retardo de la acción de ácido biliar simulado in vitro (28,31). La fibra dietaria, también tiene la capacidad de adsorber a la glucosa y reducir la digestibilidad del almidón, las que pueden ser evaluados mediante pruebas in vitro (28). Se han identificado que la lignina, pectina y galactomananos (goma guar) son las fibras dietarias con mayor capacidad para unirse a las moléculas orgánicas (32).

FIBRA DIETARIA, SALUD Y CANTIDADES RECOMENDADAS

Sobrepeso y obesidad

Se define como un factor de riesgo para las enfermedades como la diabetes, cardiopatía, hipertensión arterial, accidentes cerebrovasculares y algunas formas de cáncer (33,34). Este factor se caracteriza por una excesiva acumulación de la grasa que conducen a una composición cuyo contenido de grasa corporal supera un estándar prefijado según la altura, edad y sexo. El consumo de alimentos con bajo contenido de fibra dietaria, está relacionado con el sobrepeso y obesidad (35,36); considerada por la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) como una epidemia de escala mundial que afecta a las personas de todas las edades y de diferentes estratos sociales (37,38).

La regulación del sobrepeso y la obesidad a través de la ingesta de la fibra dietaria, puede ser explicado por tres mecanismos (Figura 1). El primero está relacionado con los efectos físicos de la fibra dietaria, que después de la ingesta de alimentos con alto contenido de fibra prolonga el tiempo de masticado y esto permite la secreción de una mayor cantidad de la saliva y los jugos gástricos, lo que resulta en una expansión del estómago y el incremento de la saciedad. Por otro lado, dietas con alto contenido de fibra dietaria, desplazan la disponibilidad de calorías y nutrientes de la dieta (40). El segundo mecanismo se refiere a los efectos fisicoquímicos de la fibra soluble, tal como los β-glucanos, psyllium, pectina, goma guar y otros; que forman soluciones viscosas; propiedad que impide parcialmente el contacto entre las enzimas digestivas y los nutrientes, tal como los ácidos biliares y la grasa (23). Este mecanismo disminuye la digestión y absorción de los nutrientes en el intestino delgado, obligando a movilizar glucógeno y grasa como fuentes de energía y para mantener los niveles adecuados de glucosa en la sangre. En este proceso, también existen depleción de los ácidos biliares, puesto que son atrapados por las fibras y excretado por las heces, obligando a la síntesis de nuevos ácidos biliares a partir del colesterol hepático disponible, lo que explica la reducción del colesterol y los niveles de lipoproteínas de baja densidad en la sangre (41,16).

El tercer mecanismo, también llamado efectos colónico-hormonales, se produce cuando la fibra dietaria es fermentada por las bacterias del colon hasta convertir en glucosa, siguiendo éste último la ruta de la glicólisis hasta convertirse en piruvato. Luego es convertido en AGCC, tales como el acetato (2 carbonos), propionato (3 carbonos) y butirato (4 carbonos) en proporciones de 60:25:15 (28). Los AGCC son potentes mediadores en células enteroendocrinas secretoras de hormonas péptido similar al glucagon (siglas en Inglés: GLP-1), péptido tirosina-tirosina (siglas en Inglés: PYY), grelina y leptina reguladoras del apetito y saciedad (42,9). El incremento de la concentración de GLP1 y PYY en la sangre, ejercen efectos anorexigénicos a nivel del sistema nervioso central, teniendo como resultado el incremento de la saciedad y la disminución del apetito (42). Por el contrario, la grelina reduce su concentración y como consecuencia la disminución del apetito (33,43). En estudios realizados con ratas adultas, la inclusión en la dieta del 10 % de pectina, tuvo el incremento de las concentraciones plasmáticas de PYY y GLP-1 en 168 y 15 %, respectivamente; en cambio la leptina se redujo en un 62 % (44). Por otro lado, la inclusión de 3,4 g y 6,8 g de Psyllium (fibra soluble) en personas voluntarias y sanas, por dos y tres días antes del desayuno y antes de la comida del medio día; concluyeron que la fibra soluble contribuye en gran medida a la sensación de satisfacción y reducción del hambre (45).

Indice glucémico y diabetes tipos II

En países desarrollados y en vías de desarrollo, la diabetes tipo 2 es reconocida como un problema importante para la salud; fisiopatología que ocasiona la disminución de la sensibilidad de insulina y la alteración de la función de las células β del páncreas que conduce a la hiperglicemia (46). En la actualidad, la ingesta de alimentos ricos en fibra dietaria ya sea en forma natural (cereales y leguminosas integrales), enriquecidos con fibra dietaria o como fibras purificadas; son consideradas como una terapia médica y es una buena estrategia para reducir la hiperglucemia postprandial en pacientes con diabetes tipo 2. Los mecanismos están basados en la reducción de la densidad en calorías de los alimentos, tiempo prolongado de masticación, aumento de la saciedad, retraso en el vaciamiento gástrico y atenuación de la velocidad de absorción de la glucosa en el intestino delgado debido a que la fibra tiene la capacidad de adsorber y retener moléculas orgánicas tal como la glucosa y grasa (46,47).

Estudios en humanos, han demostrado que el consumo de 15 g/día de fibra reduce significativamente la diabetes (41). Estudios específicos mediante la administración de 6 g de goma guar parcialmente hidrolizada (fibra soluble) en cada comida por 12 meses, redujo significativamente los niveles de glucosa postprandial en el plasma y los triglicéridos; reducción del colesterol unido a lipoproteínas de baja densidad (siglas en Inglés: cLDL) y el incremento significativo del colesterol unido a lipoproteínas de alta densidad (siglas en Inglés: cHDL), atribuidos principalmente a la formación de la viscosidad del contenido del lumen (48) que atrapa a los ácidos biliares y son excretados junto a las heces; de este modo se interrumpe la circulación entero hepática de estos compuestos. Por otro lado, la Asociación Americana de Diabetes (sigla en Inglés: ADA) recomienda el consumo de fibra entre 20 a 25 g/día (soluble e insoluble) en personas saludables para mantener un mejor control glicémico e insulínico y en pacientes con diabetes tipo 2, hasta 50 g/día de fibra; aunque esta cantidad puede presentar limitaciones en la palatabilidad y problemas gastrointestinales secundarios (1).

Cáncer

El cáncer del colon y del recto representa una causa muy importante de morbilidad y mortalidad en todo el mundo, especialmente en los Estados Unidos de Norteamérica, Europa y en algunos países del Asia (49). En un principio, se habían afirmado que alimentos con alto contenido de fibra dietaria estarían asociados con la disminución significativa de 40 a 45 % de riesgo de desarrollar cáncer y es más, alimentos como los granos, cereales y frutas fueron atribuidos como los que más reducen el cáncer colorectal (50). Los posibles mecanismos anticancerígenos serían el incremento de la masa fecal y la reducción del tiempo de tránsito intestinal, la reducción de la producción del ácido biliar secundaria, la formación de los ácidos grados de cadena corta fruto de la fermentación de las bacterias del colon, reducción del pH del colon, adsorción de los carcinógenos fecales por la fibra y la reducción a la resistencia a la insulina (51,52). Sin embargo, en estudios epidemiológicos, la afirmación anterior fue cuestionada, puesto que se encontraron resultados contradictorios, sin detectar evidencias visibles sobre el efecto protector de la fibra dietética contra el cáncer colorectal (49). Debido a estas inconsistencias, en el año 2011, el Fondo Mundial para la Investigación del Cáncer (siglas en Inglés: WCRF), ha publicado un informe en cuyas conclusiones señalan que no hay “probable” efecto protector de los alimentos con alto contenido de fibra dietética sobre el riesgo de padecer de cáncer colorectal (49); por lo que en la actualidad, los investigadores están empeñados en identificar otros factores que podrían estar involucrados tales como la edad, la dependencia genética del cáncer, la etnia y la etapa de vida; siendo necesario realizar futuras investigaciones y ajustar posibles covariables (50).

Enfermedad cardiovascular

Recientes estudios demuestran en forma consistente una asociación inversa entre la ingesta de alimentos ricos en fibra dietética y el riesgo de enfermedad coronaria; por consiguiente, la disminución de la enfermedad cardiovascular. Los mecanismos propuestos apuntan básicamente a las fibras solubles que forman altas viscosidades para la reducción de las concentraciones del cLDL, sin afectar las concentraciones del cHDL (41). Las alteraciones en la absorción del colesterol, ácidos biliares y el metabolismo hepático del colesterol debido a la formación de la viscosidad por la presencia de la fibra soluble es otro mecanismo que explica la reducción de la enfermedad cardiovascular (23). El consumo de 14 g de fibra dietaria por cada 1000 kcal de energía protege de las enfermedades cardiovasculares, específicamente el consumo de fibras solubles y específicamente el consumo de 3 o más gramos de β-glucanos al día, disminuye el colesterol total y el cLDL entre 0,25 y 0,30 mol/L, sin variar la cantidad de cHDL o triglicéridos en la sangre (41). Por otra parte, el consumo de 2 a 10 g de semilla de Plantago psyllium al día, disminuye los niveles de colesterol total en 1,55 mg/dL por cada g de semilla consumido, en tanto que el cLDL disminuye en 2,7 mg/dL (53).

Estreñimiento

La Asociación Americana de Gastroenterología describe al estreñimiento como un trastorno basado en los síntomas de defecación insatisfactoria, caracterizado por el movimiento poco frecuente del intestino, dificultades en el paso de las heces, sensación incompleta, heces duras y voluminosas y tiempos prologados (54). La ingesta de alimentos con bajo contenido en fibra dietaria ha sido relacionada con el estreñimiento, problema clínico común que afecta a los niños y adultos. En la mayor parte de los casos se presentan como un efecto secundario por el uso de medicamentos para el tratamiento de varias enfermedades (55,56). La ingesta de la fibra dietaria se traduce en el incremento de la masa, volumen fecal y la velocidad de tránsito intestinal; como consecuencia de la ingesta de alimentos que contienen celulosa, hemicelulosa y lignina (fibras insolubles) gracias a la capacidad de retención de agua y formación de mezclas de baja viscosidad (40, 41). El salvado de trigo, con 45,6 % de fibra insoluble y 2,4 % de fibra soluble, ha demostrado tener una gran capacidad para el incremento de la masa y volumen fecal, por consiguiente en la reducción del tiempo de tránsito intestinal; debido a la estimulación mecánica, promoción de los movimientos regulares y al peristaltismo (57,16). Por el contrario, las fibras solubles como la pectina, no tienen efectos significativos sobre la masa y el volumen fecal; aunque en algunas investigaciones señalan que pueden contribuir al incremento de la masa microbiana fruto de la fermentación; pues los microorganismos del colon tienen un contenido del 80 % de agua (58). La producción de los gases debido a la fermentación de las fibras solubles, formación de masa viscosa y al atrapamiento en el colon puede tener efectos en el volumen de las heces y una disminución del tiempo de tránsito intestinal (23).

Cantidades recomendadas

Las recomendaciones para la ingesta de la fibra dietaria están en función a la edad, género y la cantidad de energía ingerida. En términos generales el consumo diario de la fibra dietaria debe estar en el rango de 18 a 38 g/día para personas adultas. Específicamente para los Estados Unidos y Canadá, la Academia Nacional de Ciencias y el Instituto de Medicina de USA, recomiendan el consumo de 25 y 38 g/día para mujeres y hombres respectivamente (1). Para los niños, una recomendación sencilla es la efectuada por la Academia Americana de Pediatría (siglas en Ingles: AAP), que consiste en la suma de la edad del niño (años) con 5 g de fibra/día; es decir un niño de cinco años debería de consumir 10 g/día de fibra (54). En cambio para las personas de 9 a 13 años de edad, la Academia de Nutrición y Dietetica recomienda el consumo de 26 y 38 g/día de fibra para mujeres y varones respectivamente (61). Los valores actuales en el consumo de fibra dietaria están muy por debajo de los niveles recomendados, por ejemplo en los Estados Unidos la ingesta media es de 12-15 y 16,5-19,4 g/día para mujeres y hombres respectivamente (1); siendo los adolescentes los más propensos en cumplir las recomendaciones.

CONCLUSIONES

Existe un consenso universal en la definición fisiológica de la fibra dietaria como un grupo de polímeros y oligómeros de carbohidratos que escapan a la digestión en el intestino delgado y pasan al intestino grueso, donde son fermentados en forma parcial o completa por la microbiota intestinal, con evidencias a favor de la salud. Sin embargo, desde el punto de vista químico; aún existen controversias relacionados con aquellas moléculas de 3 a 9 grados de polimerización, cuya inclusión fue propuesta por el CODEX Alimentarius y sin haber sido adoptado por la totalidad de sus países miembros. El método enzimático-gravimétrico adoptados por la AOAC con códigos de 2009.01 y 2011.25, son los que mejor se adaptan a la definición establecida por el CODEX Alimentarius.

Las fibras solubles tienen mejores propiedades de hidratación que conducen a la formación de viscosidad, fermentación, y producción de AGCC que estimulan la producción de GLP1, PYY; hormonas que regulan el apetito y la saciedad; mecanismo importantes para la modulación del sobrepeso y la obesidad. En cambio las fibras insolubles están relacionadas con el incremento de la masa y el volumen fecal, reducción del tiempo de tránsito intestinal con posibilidades del control del estreñimiento y el cáncer en el colon.

AGRADECIMIENTOS

Los autores agradecen al Fondo Nacional de Desarrollo Científico, Tecnológico y de Innovación Tecnológica – FONDECYT, Convenio de Subvención N° 275-2015-FONDECYT.

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Editorial


We are glad to present such special issue of the Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutrición, developed in the context of the Executive Programmes of Scientific and Technological Cooperation between Italy-Argentina (2011-2013,extended until 2017) and Italy-Mexico (2011-2013), under joint support of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the MINCYT (Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva, Argentina) and the CONACYT (Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Mexico). Such bilateral research projects, focused on nutrition-related diseases’ surveillance and prevention, were led by Prof. Dario Gregori (Univer-sity of Padova, Italy) and Prof. Hugo Rodriguez (Garrahan Hospial, Buenos Aires, Argentina) (Italy-Argentina Cooperation), and by Prof.Francesco Giunta (University of Pisa, Italy) and Prof. Javier Dibildox (University San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí, Mexico) (Italy-Mexico Cooperation). These projects were aimed at analyzing epidemiological and preventive aspects of a multi-factorial phenomenon that represents a severe burden from the public health perspective: the relationship between nutrition and non-communicable diseases (referring particularly to obesity).

Obesity is well-known to be a concerning epidemic worldwide, both in developed and newly industrialized countries (NIC), and several efforts have been made to understand heterogeneous factors affecting its onset. In recent years, several researches have focused on the contribution of nontraditional factors to obesity. However,no definitive evidence is available in this field, in particular when moving apart from the North-American or Western-European experiences.

This special issue is aimed at serving as a collector for research experiences coming from outside of those regions. Investigations include researches on the role of both traditional (eating habits) and nontraditional factors (concentrating particularly on brand awareness, exposure to TV advertising, marketing of gadgets with toys) in affecting the adoption of unhealthy lifestyles, resulting in increased non-communicable diseases’ risk in subjects from both developed and emerging economies. Together with the analysis of such predictors, which is essential to develop ad hoc public health interventions fighting obesity and other nutrition-related diseases, the impact of these public health policies, promoting healthy nutrition, has been investigated, analyzing if children’s eating habits are compliant with current nutritional recommendations. Besides preventive aspects (and their efficacy), pure epidemiological investigations have been conducted,e.g.: analyzing the role of simple anthropometric measures in predicting body composition in children of different ethnicities. Finally, addictive behaviors connected to nutrition have been investigated, focusing on predictors of alcoholism in childhood.

As clearly seen from above, papers included in this special issue report from an intense bilateral cooperation between Italy and Latin America in an emerging field like nutrition and noncommunicable diseases. In our view, this should contribute on promoting the development and the dissemination of researches in regions only partially covered by the general literature.

Dario Gregori, Giulia Lorenzoni & Claudia Gafare.
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Is branding food promoting obesity? An investigation on children in San Luis Potosí

Alexander Hochdorn, Giulia Lorenzoni, Nicola Soriani, Luca Rosati, Adriana de Hoyos, Javier Dibildox, Claudia Elena Gafare, Ignacio Amador, Jose Luis Mayorga, Dario Gregori.

Unit of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Public Health, Department of Cardiac, Thoracic and Vascular Sciences, University of Padova, Italy. Prochild ONLUS Trieste, Italy. University of Monterrey, Mexico.

University San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí, Mexico. Department of Nutrition, University of Buenos Aires and Food and Diet Therapy Service, Acute General Hospital Juan A. Fernàndez, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Cuarto Centenario, San Luis Potosí, Mexico.


SUMMARY:  This study aims at assessing children’s awareness towards branded food products in central Mexico. One-hundred and twenty children, aged 3-10
years and balanced by gender, were recruited in San Luis Potosí. Kids’ heights and weights were measured in order to calculate their BMI. A cross-sectional questionnaire was administered to children’s parents in order to gain socio-demographic  information.  Children’s  brand awareness was assessed using the IBAI (International Brand Awareness Inventory). Basic exploratory analyses  were performed for samples’ general characteristics, and ANOVA was adopted for investigating differences between the IBAI tasks. Results demonstrated that 50% of kids correctly associated the logo to the respective brand in more than 70% of the cases. About half of the sample recalled the right name of the food type in 50% of the cases. 50% of kids recognized the brand name in less than 20% of cases. Older children (7-10 y) showed a higher brand awareness when compared to younger ones (3-6 y). Children demonstrated a consistent knowledge of famous fast-food and snack products. Prevention through informative campaigns should make parents more aware of the TV contents, their kids are exposed to.

Key words: Brand awareness, children, weight gain, Mexico.

RESUMEN. ¿Las marcas de los alimentos promueven la obesidad? Una investigación sobre los niños en San Luis Potosí. Este estudio tiene como objetivo evaluar la conciencia de los niños hacia los productos alimenticios de marca en México. Ciento veinte niños, de entre 3-10 años en grupos equitativos por sexos, fueron reclutados en San Luis Potosí. Se midieron la talla y los pesos de los niños con el fin de calcular sus IMC. A los padres de los niños se les entrego un cuestionario transversal a fines de obtener información socio-demográfica. El conocimiento de la marca de los niños se evaluó, mediante el uso del IBAI (Inventario Internacional de conocimiento de la marca). Se realizó un análisis exploratorio de base para obtener las características generales de la muestra y se adoptó un anova para investigar las diferencias entre las tareas IBAI. Los resultados demostraron que el 50% de los niños había asociado correctamente el logotipo de la marca respectiva en más del 70% de los casos. Aproximadamente la mitad de la muestra recordaba el nombre correcto de marca de alimentos en el 50% de los casos. 50% de los niños reconocía el nombre de la marca en menos del 20% de los casos. Los niños mayores (7-10 años) mostraron una conciencia de marca más alta si se compara con los más jóvenes (3-6 años). Los niños demostraron consistentemente tener conocimiento de los productos de comida rápida y bocadillos más conocidos. La prevención a través de campañas informativas debería conscientizar a los padres sobre los contenidos de televisión a los que que
sus hijos están expuestos.

Palabras clave: Conocimiento de la marca, niños, aumento de peso, México.

INTRODUCTION

The  growing  epidemic  of  childhood overweight and obesity is a major public health concern. Multiple factors influence eating attitudes and food choices of children, like advertising (1, 2), branding (3), peers judgments (4, 5) and social context (6). Such factors need to be evaluated when considering behavioral influences, in order to assess proper public intervention to reduce the international increase in childhood nutrition related diseases.

Genes and environment interact influencing phenotypes for intake and expenditure (7), thus indicating the need to provide information about behavioral aspects influencing obesity’s rise (8). Although genetic factors play a fundamental role in obesity development (9), the rapid increase seen within the last 50 years cannot be attributable exclusively to etiologic causes (8). The “toxic environment” has been recognized as one of the leading risk factors in childhood obesity (6), a representing a scenario where kids are highly stimulated by food-related media messages and encouraged to consume high-fat, high-sugar foods (10, 11).

Food preferences appear just at an early age and are developed all along people’s lifetime, becoming important determinants of food intake first in children, then in adolescents, and finally in adults (12). Many factors, as availability, accessibility, familiarity and parental modeling, influence the process (13). Children, who exceed daily energy intake levels and present scarce frequency of regular physical activity, are considered being at a higher risk of increasing their body mass (7, 14). By means of an experimental assessment it would be possible to access the behavioral and motivational patterns, promoting compulsive consumption of highly energy-dense foods, which are commercialized on tv broadcasts and other advertisement sources (15, 16).

When considering emotions and choices behind food consumption, brand awareness and frequency of exposure to advertising have traditionally been indicated as conditioning children’s tastes, diverting their preferences towards highly energetic food (1, 17). It has been estimated, indeed, that children are exposed to 10000 advertisements for food per year, 95% of which are for fast foods, candy, sugared cereal and soft drinks (11). From a recent study developed in toddlers, daily caloric requirement exceeded in energy intake from 10 to 30%, mostly due to energy-dense food consumption (18).

Although present trends show an increasing pressure  on  food  industry’s  advertising campaigns to divert children’s preferences towards less processed food, the association between brand awareness, advertising and obesity has not yet been proved (19, 20). Moreover, little focus has been directed towards the relationship between children’s food intake and energy expenditure (21). The aim of this research was to develop an instrument to assess Mexican chidren brand
awareness (the IBAI (International Brand Awareness Instrument)), based on a former research conducted by Forman et al. (3).

MATERIAL AND METhODS

Sample

Research population consisted of 120 children, recruited in San Luis Potosí, the sample of children was equally divided in females and males, and then split into two age groups (3-6, 7-10). The choice to divide the sample into two age-specific clusters emerged from findings of former studies carried out on this specific topic (22- 24). Results of these studies underlined, indeed, that the recalling and recognition performance of children differed according to their age.

Study Design

A selection of 12 different brand marks was performed for the mexican specific IBAI version. consistently to what was defined by Forman et al. (3), the IBAI has been adapted to the country-specific context of the present research with special attention reserved to the choice of several food brands, included for this study. Three alimentary lines were proposed as stimuli: sweet foods, savory ones, and carbonated beverages. The choice of these aliments emerged from a constant confrontation among all stakeholders involved within the project (experts in public health, psychologists, educators as well as nutritionists). In order to
propose a valid instrument for the context, two basic criteria had to be granted when choosing the single brands: 1.) all products must be available in most Mexican stores and markets on a local as well as on a national level; 2.) all of these trademarks must refer to foods usually consumed by children taking part in this research.

Independent variable

The stimuli consisted of 12 flashcards, containing just a part of a brand mark (e.g. the typical “M” in Mc Donald). In addition, sets of 12 four-image charts were correlated to each flash card. The images in the charts represent different alimentary alternatives (see table 1 for details). Out of these, only one corresponds to the brand partially shown in the flashcards. Figure 1 shows an example of a flashcard along with its multiple-choice image chart.

Procedure

Children were recruited after lunch in a quiet room inside the school they attend. The same meal was administered to all the kids and they followed the same physical activity patterns.

Afterwards,  children  were  allocated individually in a classroom, and asked to sit on a chair next to a table, where the material was exposed. The kid was set in front of the researcher in order to interact with him and the observation tools (the 12 image charts). Once the researcher explained the procedure to the child, he showed her/him each single card representing a food brand, then the selection of 4 pictures containing alimentary products.

First the child was asked to name the specific logo shown on each single card and afterwards she/he was invited to link it to one of the 4 images of aliments. The researcher then assigned 1 point if the child correctly named the product, 1 point if it has been matched to the respective food category and finally 1 point if the kid recognized the specific name of the product (e.g. “Mc Donald” is the brand, the correct image is a double roll containing two hamburgers with cheese, the products name is “Big Mac”).

Brand Awareness Scores (IBAI-score) could range from a minimum of 0 to a maximum of 36, with a cut-off set at 16 points, defining two groups: low-brand awareness children (<16) and high brand awareness ones (> 16) [15].

TABLE 1.International Brand Awareness Instrument (IBAI) – Mexico


FIGURE 1. Example of flash cards used for the IBAI. The logo of Coca-Cola (co) has been associated to milk, orange juice, chocolate and a carbonated beverage (correct match: image A)

Ethical statements

Children  who  were  diagnosed  with cognitive disorders, metabolic diseases or allergies were excluded. Parent’s informed consent was obtained for all children prior to each child’s participation in the study, and they were explained the precise aims of the study and was guaranteed anonymity. Treatment of all data was performed in compliance with the guidelines and ethics standards issued by The American Psychological Association (25).Appropriate permission was obtained from the Institutional Review Boards.

Cross-sectional questionnaire

A questionnaire was administered either to children than to their parents. The questionnaire was structured into four parts. The first one aimed to assess socio-demographic characteristics of the whole family, asking about parental education, family members’ BMI and composition of the household. A second section, in turn, looked into the general health-status of the family, especially eating habits, nursing, chronic diseases, etc. The following section assessed their eating habits in terms of both, quality and quantity of energy intake. The last part considered daily intensity and weekly frequency of physical activity performed by the children.

Anthropometrics

Children were weighed and measured in light clothing and without shoes on a balance scale and with a body meter measuring tape with wall stop. Weights and heights were utilized to calculate BMI. Children were considered to be overweight/obese with a BMI ≥85th and underweight with a BMI <5th, according to CDC growth standards (26, 27).

Statistical analysis

Basic exploratory data analysis was performed on the sample and was reported using median (I-III quartile) for continuous variables and percentages (absolute numbers) for categorical variables, whenever appropriate. Throughout a linear regression model the effect of age and gender on the total IBAI score was assessed. In order to analyze differences with regard to the three tasks of the IBAI (brand recognition, brand-product association, product recall), anova was adopted for repeated measures. Distributions of correct recognition, recall and matching emerged from the IBAI test are shown through boxplots (Figure 2).
Analyses  were  performed  using  the R-software.

RESULTS

Children’s  IBAI  scores  arising  from exact recognition of the brand mark, positive association between the logo and the respective product, as well as correct recall of the specific aliment are shown in Table 2.

Figure 2, instead, shows the different distribution of the single IBAI tasks, where overall 50% of the kids associated correctly the logo to the respective brand in more than 70% of the cases. Around half of the sample recalled the right name of the food type in 50% of the cases. 50% of kids recognized the brand name in less than 20% of cases. This comparison among the single boxplots, representing the main outcomes of the study with the twelve flashcards, shows that the brand-product association task, the brand recognition task and the product recall task show different levels of performance as demonstrated in Figure 2.

With regard to age, results showed that older children (7-10 y) performed better in the recognition task, instead in the recalling and association tasks, when compared to the younger ones (3-6 y). No significant gender related association could be revealed.

DISCUSSION

In the rapid spread of nutrition related pathologies  among  children,  age-specific advertising has been targeted as positively increasing the phenomenon. A systematic review of all the evidence made available by the Food Standards Agency (FSA) in 2003 (28), and a report by the Office of Communications (Ofcom) in 2004 (29) underlined the urgent need to expand knowledge about the influence of food commercials on children’s eating habits. Both researches concluded that there is a link between the exposure to advertisement and obesity. In a further study, Ashton (30), underlined, instead, that both studies showed evident contradictions.

In the first review, a statistically significant relation between a child’s exposure to advertising and a rise of energy intake was found. However, whilst exposure to food commercials did reduce children’s nutrient efficiency, it accounted for only 2% of the variance and had no direct effect on caloric intake, while parental behavior’s influence was fifteen times greater (31). As indicated by Kopelman (32), indeed, both reports appeared to have major limitations, being strongly dominated by studies in North American setting and concentrating only on television advertising, ignoring all other inputs that might influence children’s awareness. Kopelman’s study, held on children from 9 to 11 years, did not demonstrate a close relationship between brand awareness and the children’s reported eating behaviors, food knowledge and preferences, although the English sample showed a high brand logo recognition.

Buijzen et al. stated in a study published in 2008 (33) that television food advertising contributes to an unhealthy diet, influencing not only children’s awareness towards brand-marks, but promoting even more a general rise in consuming energy-dense foods. Conclusions, however, were derived from correlational data, which do not isolate any specific causes. The same limitation regards also the linkage between branding and obesity.

Brand awareness is defined as the active and passive knowledge of a particular brand. Research on the brand awareness of young children has focused on two aspects of brand awareness: brand recognition and brand recall. The IBAI questionnaire, adapted to the Mexican context, considered both these aspects, by researching not only children’s knowledge of brand recognition, but also of specific product naming.

Former studies, examining toddlers’ and preschoolers’ brand recognition (34, 35) and brand recall (36), showed that children’s ability to recognize brands starts earlier in development than their ability to recall these brands, showing in preschoolers an excellent recognition memory, whereas their recall memory performance is considerably weaker. Moreover, older children have more content knowledge than younger children about almost everything. In general, new information is best learned and remembered when it can be related to existing knowledge in memory, a capacity that is more distinct in older children (37). In brand awareness building, along with normal developmental patterns, environmental factors result crucial determinants.

Brands are recognized by children in early life, but their effect on obesity development has not yet been clarified. By 2 years of age, brand awareness can be detected in children (38), progressively increasing selective attention and association abilities with certain products (39, 40), particularly if brands use salient features such as bright colors, pictures, and cartoon characters (34). Just in pre-school period, preferences towards specific foods start to arise, inducing a behavior defined as “consumption by influence” (41). Marketing strategies, therefore, take into account these phenomena (41), in order to encourage children to recognize and differentiate particular products and logos; for example advertisers place cereal boxes at children’s eye level, because they know that toddlers can recognize brands of cereals, attracting their attention while there are seating in the grocery cart (6).

TABLE 2. Item response distribution for the IBAI


FIGURE 2. Percentage of correct responses for the 3 IBAI tasks.


Previous experimental studies have shown a brand effect on children’s preferences. Robinson  et al. (42) examined the effects of cumulative marketing and brand exposure on young children, by testing the influence of branding on taste preferences. Results showed that branding of foods and beverages influenced young children’s taste perceptions, with a significant greater effect in those more highly exposed to TV. Roberto (43) explored the use of licensed characters as taste promoters in children from 3 to 6 years.

Such results underlined a positive influence on taste and preferences towards so called junk food. A similar, recent work by Lapierre et al. (44) investigated whether food packaging with licensed media characters affected taste assessment of cereals, revealing consistently to Robinson and Roberto a positive effect of
subjective judgments. Unlike previous studies, focused on younger age groups, our research targeted children between 3 to 10 years old, in order to assess brand-awareness not only within specific groups, but also carrying out a comparison among them. Within our sample, age-related differences appeared.

O’ Cass’ and Clarke’s study (45) showed that main differences between age and gender are evident in types of brands recognized or recalled rather than in the number. In our study, indeed, the older group demonstrated a better performance while carrying out the brand recognition tasks. Despite age and gender, environmental factors like television advertising exposure, family characteristics, and peer influence determine young children’s brand awareness. Correlational studies on children’s brand recognition have demonstrated a significant relationship between television exposure and brand recognition (34, 46, 47). Some studies suggest that children from high income families show a better brand awareness, because they have greater exposure to the economic world than children of low socioeconomic status (37). Other studies, in contrast, have found that children belonging to low income families are better aware of brands, because they are exposed to the market-place earlier and more extensively than those grown in contexts with high socio-economic background (48).

STUDY LIMITATIONS

The study incorporated data from 120 kids, all children belonged to the same Mexican regional context, namely San Luis Potosì, and results could therefore only be intended as context-specific. Further research should extend the sample to a more cross-regional survey in order to understand if cultural differences in a country, presenting important variances from the north (close to the United States) to the south, where influences of South-American societies exercise a stronger impact, would produce different levels of awareness towards brand marks.

Lifestyles and consumption habits are assumed to differ significantly, also due to the geopolitical pluralism of a central American country, which is going through a cultural transition. There was a second limitation, data could only be intended as an aproximate estimation of general trends across the overall population. Direct observation, also via ethnographic methodologies, could integrate the findings of this study with a perspective, naturally situated within real contexts.

CONClUSIONS

The study aims to assess, the awareness of 3-10 years old children towards brand marks of certain food products, usually commercialized in supermarkets and fast food franchising within a regional context of central Mexico. Results showed that children demonstrated a consistent knowledge about famous fast-food and snack products and that the awareness towards brands produces major effects in older children.

Prevention through informative campaigns, making the parents more aware of the TV contents, their kids are watching, would improve the choice of kid-specific programs, monitoring also the food advertisement they are usually exposed to.

SOURCE OF fUNDING

The work has been partially supported by an unrestricted grant from the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs under the programs “Programmi di alta rilevanza scientifica e tecnologica” Italia-Messico and Italia-Argentina, and from ProChild ONLUS (Italy).

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Food advertising on TV and energy intake in children: results from the OBEY-AD Mexico

Dario Gregori, Alexander Hochdorn, Ricardo de Hoyos, Simonetta Ballali, Adriana de Hoyos, Claudia Elena Gafare, Giulia Lorenzoni, Javier Dibildox

Unit of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Public Health, Department of Cardiac, Thoracic and Vascular Sciences,University of Padova, Italy. University of Monterrey, Mexico. Prochild ONLUS, Trieste, Italy. Department of Nutrition, University of Buenos Aires and Food and Diet Therapy Service, Acute General Hospital Juan A. Fernàndez, Buenos Aires, Argentina. University San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí, Mexico.


SUMMARY:  Food advertising on TV is a common marketing practice, and it is suspected of promoting obesogenic behaviours. The study aimed at evaluating if gadgets (toys) packaged with food increase food consumption, and if contemporary exposure to TV and/or advertising is a further promoting factor. One-hundred and twenty children (balanced according to gender and age groups, 3-6 and 7-10 years old) were randomised in an experimental setting designed as a 2x5 full factorial ad libitum eating study. The first factor was represented by the exposure to gadgets, organized on two levels, “food with gadget” (TOY) and “food alone” (NoTOY). The second one consisted in the exposure to TV and advertising along five levels (no exposure to TV, exposure to TV without advertising, exposure to TV and 1, 2, or 3 advertsements). Our results showed no significant differences when considering the groups even after taking into account the dependent variables. The medium spot group showed the lowest energy intake, but the difference between the other groups was not significant. TV advertising and the presence of gadgets (toys) do not influence caloric intake in children.

Key words: TV exposure; advertising; toys as gadgets; obesogenic behaviour; experimental study.

RESUMEN. La publicidad de alimentos en la televisión y la ingesta energética en los niños: resultados de la OBEY-AD México. La publicidad de alimentos en la televisión es una práctica común de comercialización, y se cree que puede promover comportamientos obesogénicos. El estudio tiene como objetivo evaluar si los gadgets (juguetes) empaquetados con alimentos aumentan el consumo de alimentos y si la exposición contemporánea a la televisión y / o la publicidad es un factor promotor adicional. Ciento veinte niños (agrupados por sexo y edad, 3-6 y 7-10 años de edad) fueron asignados al azar en una escuela de San Luis Potosí -México. Los niños fueron asignados al azar en el contexto experimental de un estudio de diseño factorial completo 2x5 de consumo de alimentos ad libitum. El primer factor estuvo representado por la exposición a juguetes y estuvo organizado en dos niveles: “alimento con juguetes” (TOY) y “alimento solo” (NoTOY). El segundo consistía en la exposición a la televisión y a publicidad televisiva a lo largo de cinco niveles (sin exposición a TV, exposición a TV sin publicidad, exposición a TV y a 1, 2 o 3 anuncios publicitarios). Nuestros resultados no mostraron diferencias significativas entre los grupos, incluso teniendo en cuenta las variables dependientes. Sólo en el grupo mediano al que se mostraron dos publicidades se observó el consumo de energía más bajo. La diferencia entre los otros grupos no fue significativa. La publicidad en televisión y la presencia de los pequeños juguetes no influyen en el consumo de calorías en los niños.

Palabras clave: Exposición a la televisión; publicidad; juguetes como dispositivo; comportamientos obesogénicos; estudio experimental.

INTRODUCTION

Obesity, which represents a clear and present risk for health-status of children and adolescents, has become an epidemic with an estimated 17.6 million overweight and obese children on a global scale (1, 2). Mexico has one of the highest obesity rates in Latin America (3) with prevalence of obesity among adolescents ranging from 9.0% among 10-year-olds boys to 6.1% among 15-year-olds, and from 5.9% among 12- year-old girls to 8.2% among 16-year-olds (4).
The rise of obesity already in early age, as a major risk factor underlying a high rate of non-communicable diseases (NCD), including diabetes mellitus (5), coronary heart disease (6), hypertension and some cancer-related diseases (7), needs to be treated throughout widespread policies for prevention and, in case of a disease in progress, with clinical support (8, 9). A recent WHO report on non-communicable diseases has pointed out that cardiovascular disorders and diabetes represent the most common NCD’s caused deaths with 17 million and 1.3 million victims annually, respectively (10). Such data highlights the urgent need to promote prevention policies, especially in the youngest ones.

Despite the fact that genetic factors play a significant role in the development of obesity (11), the increase of its prevalence in the past years strongly suggests that environmental factors are largely responsible (12). Variety of food supply available 24h/day (13), changes in dietary habits due to time constraints, like globalization processes (14, 15) and changes in physical activity due to technological advances create a ‘toxic’ environment responsible for obesity and eating disorders (16). A generally recognized cause of obesity is the excess of caloric intake in relation to energy expenditure (17, 18), although such an obesity driver could not be isolated as directly associable to weight-gain (19). Therefore the focus of attention has been turned to limit inappropriate (qualitative and quantitative) energy intake, above all where the context turns out to be an obesogenic promoter especially for children. TV viewing, advertising
and snacking, indeed, have been recognized as co-causing factors (20-23). TV exposure often prompts physical inactivity (24), and increases at the same time a typical post-modern positioning towards consumption of dense and highly energetic snack food. Furthermore, several professionals in the public health system have concluded that constant exposure to messages encouraging consumption of snacks or fast food which is communicated to children through food advertising turns out to be the cause of inappropriate eating habits (25). Every day, children, while watching TV, are exposed on average to 15 spots advertising food products (Federal Trade Commission, 2007), and 98% of these marketing campaigns promote aliments high in fat, sugar and/or sodium (26).

Anyway, the results of different studies vary from showing positive association between TV viewing and increased levels of obesity during childhood (27, 28) to short and long-term effects of advertising on children’s eating habits. Such mechanisms contribute to the promotion of unhealthy diets (20, 29) often causing ongoing consumption of those food products which were advertised during childhood, later in their life as well (30). Although some associations have been found between exposure to visual commercial messages and caloric intake (31), no evidence could be revealed that a causal link between these two variables could exist (32). Such findings, indeed, are almost due to deductive associations rather than caused by a univocal relation.

An intersectional view, instead, frames this phenomenon within a circular interdependence between  contextual  (culture,  society, geopolitical coordinates), biological (genetics and physiology), psychological (emotional and motivational) as well as behavioral factors (inactivity, parental attitudes and social based bias) (21, 33). From this perspective, “snacking” of highly energy-dense food, is seriously compromising the maintenance of “healthy and balanced dietary habits”.

Aim of this research, therefore, is to assess the influence of TV, advertising and gadgets on energy intake throughout an experimental model developed by Gregori et al. (1). This experimental assessment consists in an ad libitum eating study, involving children from 3 to 10 years in San Luis Potosi, Mexico.

MATERIALS AND METhODS

Study design

The experiment was designed as a 2x5 full factorial ad libitum eating study. The first factor was represented by the exposure to gadgets, organized on two levels, “food with gadget” (TOY) and “food alone” (NoTOY). The second one consisted in the exposure to TV and advertising along five levels: “no exposure to TV” (NoFilmNoSpot), “exposure to TV without advertising” (FilmNoSpot), “exposure to TV and one advertising” (FilmLowSpot), “exposure to TV and two advertising” (FilmMediumSpot), “exposure to TV and three advertising” (FilmHighSpot).

The Film was a cartoon lasting about 22 minutes, chosen to be a non-spoken cartoon in order to propose a culture –free stimulus. Details about the choice of the tool and its role in the experiment are given elsewhere (1).

Sample size computation

Sample size was computed with reference to an alpha equal to 0.05 and a power of 0.90, aimed at detecting at least a difference of 20 Kcal of caloric intake (assuming an equal standard deviation in the two groups of about 10 Kcal) between the two experimental groups “food with gadget” and “food alone” in each of the 10 randomization cells. 120 Mexican children were indicated as needed to accomplish with such study targets, both males and females (50% respectively), ranging from 3 to 10 years of age.

Randomization and ethical conduction of the study

The single children were randomized according to each of the 10 cells of the full-factorial design, and randomization was performed through an ad-hoc computerized program, including the data collection and study conduction software system used for the research. Randomization was blocked by age (two groups of children 3-6 and 7-10 years old) and by gender (male and female) to ensure complete balance for the two potential confounding factors. Children having any kind of psychological or physical conditions, or presenting allergic reactions to the food items offered in the experimental session were not taken into consideration. Parents’ informed consent was obtained, and all experimental procedures were performed according to the guidelines and ethical standards established by the American Psychological Association (36). Appropriate permission was obtained from the Institutional Review Boards.

Study setting

Children were enrolled in a school setting in San Luis Potosí (Mexico). They were evaluated during a break after lunch inside a classroom, specifically set up for the study. All children within the school received the same meal and had a consistent pattern of programmed physical activity. Parents were invited to position
themselves at the lateral or back side of the classroom in order to fill out a questionnaire, without being seen by their children, who were engaged in the experimental session. Children were videotaped by two hidden digital cameras, strategically located to capture the front and side positions of the children. The researcher, instead,was located back-screen, to be readly available for children’s questions without influencing his behavior.

Parents’ questionnaire

The questionnaire given to children’s parents was divided in two sections. The first part was aimed at determining socio-demographic characteristics of the whole family, asking about parents’ education and familiars’ BMI, as well as a detailed set of queries on principal meals and basic physical activities performed within the family. Questions on child’s eating habits were introduced in the second part of the questionnaire, aimed at assessing TV viewing and physical activity of both, the children and their families.

Anthropometrics

Children were weighed and measured in light clothing and without shoes on an electronic stand-up balance scale with a rigid metric belt. Measurements were taken by asking children to position themselves backwards on a wall, making sure the back of their feet touched the wall, thus a straight angle was formed between the wall and the floor. A straight surface was placed over the child´s head and a mark was drawn on the wall, representing the initial point. Weights and heights were used in order to calculate body mass index (BMI). Children were considered to be overweight/obese with a BMI ≥85th and underweight with a BMI <5th, according to CDC growth standards (37, 38)

Brand Awareness

Another questionnaire to assess children’s brand awareness, the IBAI inventory (39), was adopted for this study. The tool consisted of 12 images of both international and country-specific brand marks. The kids were asked to recognize the brand, to recall it, and to match it to an image to be chosen out of 4 different image options (see Figure 1). Finally, the researcher asked the child for the specific name of the product. Brand Awareness Scores (IBAI-score) could range from a minimum of 0 to a maximum of 36, with a cut-off set at 16 points, defining two groups: low-brand awareness children (<16)  and  high  brand  awareness  ones (> 16) (39).

FIGURE 1. On the left side, country IBAI box plot. On the right side, country energy intake box plot.


Study conduction

Children were first evaluated to assess BMI and basic characteristics. Afterwards, the IBAI questionnaire was administered to children by the interviewer. When the IBAI assessment was fully completed, the interviewer explained the progression of the study to the child. The snack offered for the study consisted in a sweet aliment composed by two shapes of chocolate containing a small gadget. The snack, which is a commonly commercialized product within Mexican stores and markets, has been selected for two reasons: (i) pointing out the eventual influence of the gadget, which has to be a toy easy to handle then combined to the snack, sold as one, single product, and (ii) the commercial version of the snack must permit a precise weighting of the content before the beginning of the experiment, in order to assess the starting points, and also after the session, offering in this way an accurate estimate of the amount of calories eaten by each kid. The part containing the chocolate was previously weighed and then offered alone to the children randomized to the NoTOY group, while it was given combined with the part containing the gadget to the TOY group. At the time of the first administration of the snack, if the child was assigned to a TV exposed group, the movie started without any interruption.

After the first snack-intake, the researcher could show the next one (having first waited for the child’s request). Each kid could eat ad libitum up to a maximum of 12 portions. Administration of the snack was performed adopting a pre-developed protocol, in order to control, as much as possible, the investigator’s influence on the children’s behavior.

Once the experimental session ended, the experimenter weighed the remaining chocolate of each product. All sessions were digitally recorded for subsequent examination and data quality assurance.

Statistical analysis

Basic exploratory data analysis was performed on the sample and reported using median (I-III quartile) for continuous variables and percentages (absolute numbers) for categorical variables, whenever appropriate. Main analysis was based on a linear model where blocking factors, Gadget, FilmSpot and interaction between FilmSpot and Gadget were inserted in the model. This is the base model used in the analysis, where specific investigations on single factor-level effects were conducted using appropriate linear contrasts.

To further check for additional confounding factors, six models were developed. In each model, variables have been added to the base model:

1. Base: Nation+Age+Gender+Gadget+Film Spot+ToyFilmSpot
2. M1: BMI + Breast Feed + Hours/Week TV + Physical activity (hours/week)
3. M2: BMI Father + BMI Mother + number Brothers/Sisters
4. BA: IBAI-Score
5. M3: Number of rooms in the house + number of TV in the house + Educational level mother
6. M4: breakfast in the morning + fruit portions/day + vegetables portions/day

Each model was estimated and for the selected variables, the AIC criterion in the backward fashion was used for the selected variables. For each model, significance of the main experimental factors (Toy - FilmSpot and Toy - FilmSpot interaction) was assessed. Children were classified as “high consumers” if their energetic intake during the sessions exceeded the III quartile of the distribution.

Variables associated to the cluster of “high consumer” were modeled using a logistic regression and selected via the AIC criterion in a backward fashion. Analyses were performed using the R System (40).

RESULTS

Sample characteristics

Children enrolled in the study presented a median BMI of 16.40, while parents’ BMI showed a median of 24.65 for the mothers and 25.47 for the fathers. Children with no brothers and sisters represented respectively 57% and 68% of the sample. Parents stated that children had breakfast every day before school in 79% of cases, consuming a daily a portion of fruit (42%) and a portion of vegetables (41%).

When interviewed on TV watching, the median of total hours per week of TV exposure amounted to about 11 hours. The IBAI score showed a median value of 16.50 (Figure 1). All data are presented in Table 1.

TABLE 1. Description of the sample. Summaries for categorical variables are expressed as percentage (absolute numbers in parenthesis) and for continuous variables as median (I and III quartile).


Overall energy intake of children

The energy intake and glycemic load registered respectively a median value of 214.19 kcal and 11.67 g% Gl, which corresponds to a median of 2 snacks per kid.
Effect of gadget per se and combined with TV viewing and advertising Data on energy intake according to the specific study factors determined for each subgroup are presented in Table 2. No significant association between energy intake and gadget (Figure 2, left side) was found (p= 0.807). Conversely, a significant association was found according to movie and advertising exposure (Figure 2, right side) (p= 0.006).

The interdependence between Toys and TV was assessed, too. The highest score of caloric intake was revealed for the No TOY- Film High Spot group, meanwhile their interaction was not overall significant. The lowest value, instead, was recorded in the NoTOY- Film Medium Spot group (Figure 3, left side). The
influence of the gadget principally emerged within the No Film No Spot group, where no significant difference among the two clusters, however, could be revealed (Figure 3, right side).Once adjusted the confounding factors, when considering energy intake in the groups of children exposed to TV without gadget. All data are presented in Table 3.

High consumer

The third quartile of caloric intake showed an amount of 328.64 Kcal. Such measure constituted the cut-off points, in order to identify those children, presenting higher energy intake levels during the experimental session. In table 4 the main characteristics of such “high consumer” kids have been evidenced. In this cluster, made up of 34 children, a significant association was found in comparison with the TV exposure groups (p= 0.012) and after evaluation of IBAI scores (p= 0.008).

TABLE 2. Overall energy intake (Kcal) according to the study factors.

FIGURE 2. On the left side, energy intake related to gadget. On the right side, energy intake related to TV and advertising in a gadget’s exposure status.



FIGURE 3. On the left side. Energy intake (kcal) trends related to TV and advertisement in a gadget TOY/no gadget NoTOY status. On the right side, energy intake related to gadget exposure in No Film Tv No Spot group.


TABLE 3. Significance of the Gadget, TV, advertising and their interaction after adjustment for several potential confounding factors. Cells are p-values related to the variables indicated in the columns. p is considered as significant when p <0.05.


TABLE 4. Characterization of the High Consumers according to the main study variables. Summaries for categorical variables are expressed as percentage (absolute numbers in parenthesis) and for continuous variables as median (I and III quartile).

DISCUSSION

The expansion of children’s obesity is linked to several factors, influencing their behaviour.Genetic  predisposition,  environment  and social factors may play a fundamental role when studying both the prevention and the development of obesity. The obesogenic environment, constituted by cultural and social factors, is of paramount importance for the research, given the role it plays for children’s decision making. In the present ad libitum experiment the subjects’ self-regulated intake according to personal choices and behavior was investigated (41). This methodology, particularly indicated for nutritional studies assessing behavioral characteristics linked to increased caloric intake (42), aimed at analyzing spontaneous behavior within an experimental setting, considering a set of potential confounding factors (42). This research represents therefore the first ad libitum study on snacking and related factors (like gadget and snack advertisement) focused on the potential variation of the energy gap associated to consumption of snacks in different environmental settings. Self-regulation has already been advocated as an efficient and preventive treatment for childhood obesity (43, 44). Among various co-causing variables responsible for increased caloric intake, no association emerged when adding gadgets to the snack, namely the overall quantity of snacks eaten by the child in this ad libitum study.

Interaction with TV and advertising

In this study, the effects of TV watching and advertising on children’s consumption were investigated. The evaluation was carried out in order to compare children who were shown the short movie while eating, with those who were not selected to be shown any TV, so as to show different consumption behaviors within various experimentally reproduced situations.

Out of the results, both the presence and the absence of TV showed an increase of energy intake in children. This study, although located within an experimental setting, was intended to verify the maximum effect of a specific advertising spot promoting the snack eaten by the children. The main goal, therefore, consisted in establishing some kind of relation between the presence or the absence of commercial exposure.

Within the research, differences in terms of energy intake among the HighSpot group and the NoFilmNoSpot group turned out to be not significant, while the children randomized in the MediumSpot group ate markedly less. Investigating the interaction between the presence of the gadget, as well as TV watching and exposure to advertisements, no significant  association emerged, and even in the case of the only subgroup not selected for TV viewing (NoFilmNoSpot)  -which  represented  the control group-, levels of consumption in terms of calories could not be related to the gadget.

Study Limitations

Although  all  results  were  confirmed also after adjustment, which shows a strong consistency  within  the  study,  several limitations can be mentioned. First of all, these results refer to an experimental setting, which needs to be validated in natural situated contexts. Nonetheless, the choice of an experimental setting allowed us to eliminate the wide variety of biases that could distort the depend variables. Second, the children may have possibly been aware of the artificial context created for the study as well as of the researcher’s presence. All of these factors may have potentially distorted their behaviour. Still, for no a priori reason it could be supposed that such bias would have acted selectively on one group more than on the other. Thus, if a bias occurred, it would have most likely been spread on all groups equally. Third, there was no possibility for children to choose between different types of snack, given the a priori decision to use a single product which was adequate to the research goals and experimental procedures. Children enrolled in the study might have been limited by the lack of choice in the ad libitum snacking setting. Further research involving a broader choice of products will offer a more representative analysis on children’s consumption behavior.

CONClUSIONS

Even if in the Film Spot group several differences  among  the  five  subgroups were identified, findings showed that food advertising does not encourage children to eat more. At this proposal, for a full understanding of the association between energy intake and food advertising, different investigative procedures have been performed. Furthermore, the study revealed that the presence of a toy commercialized along with a snack, does not alter the amount of the item consumed by children in a Mexican context. However, from a perspective of public health, effective and preventive interventions should be promoted in order to improve health and nutritional status and they need to be culture-specific and implemented at all levels: from single individuals to society at large.

SOURCE Of FUNDING

The work has been partially supported by an unrestricted grant from the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs under the programs “Programmi di alta rilevanza scientifica e tecnologica” Italia-Messico and Italia-Argentina, and from Prochild ONLUS (Italy).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The study group gratefully acknowledges Ferrero Inc. for having provided all the experimental food and toys free to the experimenters. All authors declare to not have any conflict of interest.

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Does food advertising influence snacks consumption in Chilean children?.Results from an experimental ad libitum study

Giulia Lorenzoni, Slavica Zec, Louis Flores Farias, Claudia Elena Gafare, Pietro Vassallo,Galvarino Jofré Araya, Dario Gregori, and the OBEY-AD Study Consortium.

Unit of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Public Health, Department of Cardiac, Thoracic and Vascular Sciences, University of Padova, Italy. Don Bosco Congregación Salesiana, Concepción Chile.

Department of Nutrition, University of Buenos Aires and Food and Diet Therapy Service, Acute General Hospital Juan A. Fernàndez, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Education department, Conferencia Episcopal de Chile. Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, United Kingdom.

SUMMARY:  The present study aimed at assessing the impact of food advertising on snack consumption in Chilean children using an experimental, ad libitum, design. Forty children were enrolled in urban, middle class, school setting. They underwent anthropometric assessment, brand awareness evaluation, and their lifestyle and habits were recorded through a validated questionnaire administered to their parents. A 5-arm design was adopted, consisting in the exposure to five different levels of TV spots and advertising. No significant differences were identified in caloric intake among children randomized to different levels of TV spots and commercials exposure. No significant effects on caloric intake, caloric intake per BMI, and or glycemic load were detected, even after adjustment for confounding factors. This study suggests the need for a better analysis of the contribution of non-traditional factors to obesity onset in children, which can provide high-quality evidence in order to develop effective public health strategies to face childhood obesity epidemic.

Key words: Children, food advertising, television, snack consumption, Chile.

RESUMEN. ¿Influye la publicidad de alimentos en el consumo de colaciones en los niños chilenos? Resultados de un estudio experimental ad libitum. El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar el impacto de la publicidad de alimentos en el consumo colaciones en los niños chilenos mediante la utilización de un diseño experimental basado en la voluntad de los participantes (ad libitum). Se realizó la inscripción de cuarenta niños en el contexto de una escuela urbana de clase media. Se les realizó una evaluación antropométrica, un examen de reconocimiento de marca y se procedió a registrar información sobre su estilo de vida y hábitos mediante un cuestionario validado que fue entregado a los padres y firmado por los mismos. Se adoptó un diseño de 5 grupos, que consistía en evaluar la
exposición a cinco niveles diferentes de publicidad y clips televisivos. No se identificaron diferencias significativas en cuanto a la ingesta calórica entre los niños asignados aleatoriamente a diferentes niveles de exposición a clips televisivos y a anuncios publicitarios. No se detectaron efectos significativos en tanto a la ingesta calórica, ingesta calórica por IMC, o la carga glucémica, incluso después de realizar el ajuste por factores de confusión. El presente estudio sugiere la necesidad de un mayor análisis respecto de la incidencia de factores no tradicionales en la aparición de la obesidad en los niños, que proporcione evidencia de alta calidad con el fin de desarrollar estrategias eficaces en materia de salud pública ante la epidemia de obesidad infantil.

Palabras clave: Niños, publicidad de alimentos, televisión, consumo de colaciones, Chile.

INTRODUCTION

Obesity prevalence in childhood has been rising worldwide (1, 2), both in developed and in newly industrialized countries. Childhood obesity represents a severe public health burden given its well-known association with metabolic and cardiovascular impairments. Understanding factors associated with obesity in children is crucial, in order to implement public health policies addressing obesity contributors, reducing obesity (and its comorbidities) burden.

Several predictors have been identified, and they are distinguished usually in modifiable and non-modifiable. Among non-modifiable ones, genetics play an important role in predicting obesity onset (3). Among modifiable predictors, different contributors have been identified, including: dietary patterns (4); behavioral factors (physical activity levels, sedentary behaviors (5), daily sleep hours (6)); perinatal characteristics (7) (mother’s body mass index (BMI), birth weight, smoking during pregnancy, gestational diabetes); non-traditional risk factors (8) (food advertising, marketing of snacks with gadgets); and psychological ones (parents’ perception of child body shape (9), stressful events, quality of family relationship).

Recently, researches on obesity predictors have concentrated especially on non-traditional factors. It has been suggested that TV viewing and exposure to unhealthy food and beverages advertising are associated with increased caloric intake, and, consequently, to increased obesity likelihood (10, 11). However, when looking at the association between marketing of snacks with gadgets (in order to capture children’s attention) results are controversial. Experimental studies failed to identify a significant relationship between the exposure to food packaged with come-ons (e.g., toys) and increased caloric intake (12, 13), while observational ones seemed to suggest that the restriction in the use of gadgets for the promotion of energy-dense food results in healthier food choices (14).

Several  governments  worldwide  have implemented interventions for obesity prevention by regulating advertisement aimed to children, and the marketing of food with come-ons, even if evidence from literature are controversial. Some examples of such regulations are represented by the Santa Clara County CA Ordinance (the first U.S. jurisdiction to prohibit the marketing of toys and other incentives with foods that do not meet nutritional recommendations), and the recent Chilean law on food labelling and advertising.

The recent Chilean regulation has prohibited the advertisement of food and beverages (high in sodium, total sugar, satured fat, and energy) and the use of come-ons, such as toys, stickers etc., in the promotion of such products to children under the age of 14. The adoption of such measures is motivated by the concerning high prevalence of childhood obesity, especially in Chile, where a recent report of the Chilean Health Ministry has shown that about 30% of preschoolers are overweight/obese (15).

Considering such framework, characterized by the urgent need to deal with childhood obesity epidemic, but the lack of evidence available on non-traditional obesity predictors, the aim of this study is to assess the impact of food advertising on snack consumption in Chilean children using an experimental, ad libitum, design.

METHODS

The present experimental study was a spin-off of the OBEY-AD (OBEsogeneicitY of gADgets marketed with snacks) study, aimed at assessing the contribution of non-traditional factors on obesity development in children. Children aged 6-12 years were recruited from an urban, middle-class, school setting in the city of Santiago (Chile). Children suffering of allergies, cognitive disorders or metabolic diseases were excluded. Parents’ informed consent was obtained prior to children participation to the study. Subjects’ treatment was consistent with the guidelines of the American Psychological Association (APA) (16). Appropriate permissions
were obtained by the Institutional Review Board. A detailed description of the study is given elsewhere (12).

Experimental design and procedure

The experimental study was 5-arm ad libitum eating design (study procedure is reported in Figure 1). Children were exposed to ten different snacks (Table 1) that could be eaten ad libitum during the experimental session. The experimental factor was represented by the exposure to TV and advertising, organized in five levels: “no exposure to TV” (NoFilmNoSpot), “exposure to TV without advertising” (FilmNoSpot), “exposure to TV and one advertisement” (FilmLowSpot), “exposure to TV and two advertisements” (FilmMediumSpot), and “exposure to TV and three advertisements” (FilmHighSpot).

The film was a non-spoken cartoon lasting 22 minutes. It consisted of a set of episodes with Disney Pluto © as main character. The experimental session took place in a quiet room of the school facility during the afternoon break. Children participating to the study received the same meal and had consistent physical activity patterns. They were sitting at a table in front of a monitor (except to those randomized to the NoFilmNoSpot level), while the investigator was in a back-screen position to not interfere with children performance, but to be easily reachable from their requests. The session was videotaped using two hidden HD cameras. Parents were asked to not attend the experimental session; if they refused, they were asked to sit at the back of the room without being seen by the child.

Once  enrolled  in  the  study,  children underwent  anthropometric  assessment  and lifestyle habits recording (through a validated questionnaire). After baseline assessment, kids were randomized. Randomization was blocked by age and gender, and was performed using an ad hoc software integrated with data collection
and study conduction system. Subsequently, the investigator administered the International Brand Awareness Inventory (IBAI) (17) to children, and explained the next study’s steps.

Ten different snacks were presented to children (Table 1), and at the same time it was started the cartoon movie (when applicable, according to participants’ allocation). The snacks were placed on a tray, with their branded packages directed upwards. All children were asked to choose the snacks they preferred and to eat ad libitum. In order to calculate the amount of snacks eaten by each child, the residuals were weighed at the end of the experimental session and data were entered in the study software (each snack was identified with a code reported in the study’s system program together with its weight, assessed at the beginning of the study).

FIGURE 1. Flow-chart of the study procedure.


TABLE 1. Nutritional facts of snacks presented to children in the experimental session.


Anthropometric measurements

Children’s were weighed and measured barefoot and wearing light clothes. Weight and height were assessed using a balance scale and a body meter with a wall stop. BMI was calculated as weight divided by height squared. Children were considered to be overweight/obese with a BMI ≥85th and underweight with a BMI <5th, according to CDC growth standards (18).

Study questionnaire

A  cultural-specific  questionnaire  was administered to children’s parents in order to assess their son/daughter habits and lifestyles. The tool was made of different parts. The first one aimed at assessing family characteristics (number of siblings, age/weight/height/physical activity levels of parents and siblings, with whom the child lived); socio-economic status (parents’ working status and educational level, number of rooms in the house); time spent watching TV/videogames (hours the child spent each day watching TV and playing with videogames, number of TVs in the house, presence of the TV in the child room). The second section assessed child’s eating habits (food frequency, if the child usually had breakfast/snacks/lunch/dinner) and feeding practices in early childhood (if the child was breastfed and how long). The third part consisted on a projective test investigating mother’s perception of child’s body size, and the
last one assessed child’s physical activity levels.

Brand awareness
 
Children’s brand awareness was evaluated by administering the IBAI questionnaire. It is a validated instrument, consisting on 12 images of food products (both international and country-specific). Children were asked to: recognize the brand, match the brand with the corresponding food product and name the product. Details of the instrument are given elsewhere (17, 19).

Power calculation

Basic assumptions for powering the study were a consumption in the baseline groups (NoFilmNoSpot)  of  200  Kcal,  roughly corresponding to the consumption of a snack during the experimental session. Standard deviation of the regression errors has been set to 100 Kcal based on previous pilot observations. If the true slope of the line obtained by regressing Kcal consumption against experimental arm levels is 5.5 (trend analysis), 32 subjects were needed to be able to reject the null hypothesis that this slope equals zero with probability (power) 0.8. The Type I error probability associated with this test of this null hypothesis is 0.05. Sample size has been increased to 8 for accounting for non-experimental variations in the study subjects.Sample size has been estimated using PS (20).

Statistical analysis

Basic descriptive data analysis has been performed on the sample and reported using median (I-III quartile) for continuous variables and percentages (absolute numbers) for categorical variables, whenever appropriate. Further exploratory data analysis has been conducted to highlight the differences in the co-primary endpoints (Kcal and Kcal/BMI and Glycemic Load) across the study regimes, reporting the median and the interquartile range for both, stratified by NoFilmNoSpot, FilmNoSpot, FilmLowSpot, FilmMediumSpot and FilmHighSpot. These results can be further visualized graphically in the corresponding boxplot. (see Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4).

Main analysis has been based on a linear model where blocking factors (sex and age) and FilmSpot have been inserted in the model. This is the base model used in the analysis, where specific investigations on single factor-level effects have been conducted using appropriate linear contrasts.

To further check for additional confounding factors, adjusted model has been developed, using the AIC criterion in the backward fashion. For each model, significance of the main experimental factor (exposure to TV or spot) has been assessed. Children  were  classified  as  “high consumers” if their energetic intake during the sessions exceeded the III quartile of the distribution. Basic descriptive data analysis has been performed on the stratified sample and reported using median (I-III quartile) for continuous variables and percentages (absolute numbers) for categorical variables, were reported. Also, accordingly association tests
were conducted between the probability to be a high-end consumer and selected variables (Fisher exact test for the categorical variables and t test for the continuous). Analyses has been conducted using the R System (21).

RESULTS

Forty children, balanced by gender, were enrolled. Children’s age ranged from 6 to 12 years (median age 9.5 years). More than an half of them was found to be overweight/obese according to the CDC growth charts (18), and to never do physical activity (22%) or to do it rarely (45% of children did physical activity only half an hour or an hour per week). Despite the fact that most of children were found to be physically inactive, most of them were reported to do not play with videogames (42.5%) or to play with videogames no more than an hour per week (50%), even if they spent a median time of 18 hours per week watching TV (roughly at least 2 hours per day). Median IBAI score was found to be 19 (15, 22 I-III quartile), corresponding to a medium-low/medium-high brand awareness. Sample characteristics are summarized in Table 2.

TABLE 2. Sample characteristics. Numbers are I quartile/median/III quartile for continuous variables and percentages for categorical variables.


During the experimental session, children were found to eat a median of 453.7 kcal, corresponding to a median glycemic load of 24.725. Table 3 shows caloric intake (rough and per BMI) and glycemic load according to exposure to TV and advertising, and the differences in the intake of children randomized to different  levels  of TV/advertising  exposure compared to those  randomized to the NoFilmNoSpot  level.  Despite the fact that children allocated in the FilmMediumSpot  and in the FilmHighSpot levels were reported to have higher caloric intake (rough and per BMI), and glycemic load compared to the other children (as it is depicted in Figure 2, 3, and 4), no significant  differences were identified. No significant effects on caloric intake, caloric intake per BMI, and glycemic load were
detected, even after adjustment for potential confounding factors using both single comparisons to the reference level NoFilmNoSpot (Table 4) and multiple comparisons between  different treatment  regimens (Table 5).

Looking  at  the characteristics of children classified as “low consumers” and “high consumers” (according to the III quartile of the distribution of the energy intake), higher consumers were found to be more likely to be obese compared to the “low consumers”. However, referring to the study factors, no significant differences were identified according to treatment allocation.

TABLE 3. Overall energy intake according to the study factors.


FIGURE 2. Energy intake (Kcal) according to TV/advertising exposure.

FIGURE 3. Energy intake (Kcal/BMI) according to TV/advertising exposure.


FIGURE 4. Glycemic load according to TV/advertising exposure.


TABLE 4. Significance of the TV and spot regimes in comparison to the reference level (NoFilmNoSpot) after adjustment for several potential confounding factors.


TABLE 5. Multiple comparison of different treatment regimes. Last column reports the results of the comparison between Treatment (pooled exposure to TV with or without advertising (FilmNoSpot + FilmLowSpot + FilmMediumSpot + FilmHighSpot)) vs No treatment (no TV exposure (NoFilmNoSpot)).


TABLE 6. Characterization of the High Consumers according to the main study variables. Numbers are I quartile/median/III quartile for continuous variables and percentages for categorical variables.

DISCUSSION

The aim of the present study was to assess if an association existed between TV advertising and snack consumption in Chilean children. Understanding factors associated to obesity onset is relevant among kids living in Chile, given the concerning high prevalence of childhood obesity. In recent years, this country goes through a rapid economic improvement. Along with such economic improvement, a social and cultural transition has taken place, resulting in substantial changes in living conditions (e.g., adoption of better hygiene practices and food habits, but also of sedentary lifestyles and of energy-dense food consumption, instead of fruits, vegetables, and whole grains) (22). Referring specifically to nutrition transition, these changes contribute to a progressive reduction of undernutrition, but result in a dramatic growth of obesity (and its comorbidities) prevalence, especially among children and adolescents (15). Reflecting this concerning scenario, more than a half of children enrolled in the study were found to be overweight or obese, and to be scarcely physically active, which is consistent with previous research in the field (23).

The hypothesis of the existence of an association between commercials and snack consumption has been motivated by previous research suggesting that food advertising might influence food behaviors regardless subjects’ awareness (24). The analysis of data from the experimental session showed no significant association  between  TV/food  advertising exposure and energy intake. These findings differed from those reported in previous studies, which generally have demonstrated that exposure to food advertising results in higher energy intake (25, 26). However, it has been suggested the existence of an inter-regional variability influencing the association between food advertising and snack consumption (12, 13). Moreover, a recent review on clinical trials analyzing the relationship between TV/advertising exposure and caloric intake has shown that first-quality evidence in this field are lacking. This is because generally studies have focused on children’s choice and preferences and not on their actual intake of food, even if it could not be directly translated children’s preferences to their actual consumption (27).

Results of this study show that the association between advertising and caloric intake is not obvious and possibly depending from the actual context where it is evaluated. Recent regulatory activities might be important steps in limiting consumption of specific food items. In this sense, it is essential to strictly monitor both the short and long-term effects of such regulation, carefully evaluating any changes in food choices and in overweight/obesity (and their comorbidities) prevalence among Chilean population, in order to evaluate the actual effectiveness of such public health strategies against childhood obesity epidemic.

SOURCE Of FUNDING

The work has been partially supported by an unrestricted grant from the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs under the programs “Programmi di alta rilevanza scientifica e tecnologica” Italia-Messico and Italia-Argentina, and from Prochild ONLUS (Italy).

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Is brand visibility on snacks packages affecting their consumption in children?. Results from an experimental ad-libitum study

Dario Gregori, Giulia Lorenzoni, Simonetta Ballali, Maria Gabriella Vecchio,Elvira Verduci, Paola Berchialla.

Unit of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Public Health, Department of Cardiac, Thoracic and Vascular Sciences, University of Padova, Italy. ZETA Research Ltd, Trieste, Italy. Department of Health Sciences, San Paolo Hospital, Pediatric Clinic, University of Milano, Italy. Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Torino, Torino, Italy.

SUMMARY:  The aims of the study were to assess the effects of the brand when snacking in children 6-11 years old and to evaluate the effect of different levels of brand awareness on children’s intake. A 3x2 factorial design was adopted, and 96 children were randomized based on their brand awareness scores, assessed using the IBAI instrument and the study was conducted over two experimental sessions. First, 11 snacks were presented to the half of children laying on their own branded packages, whilst to the other half unbranded. In a second afternoon break, on a different day, the condition of branded/unbranded was crossed-over. Children were randomized in three groups based on combinations of concomitant TV and advertising exposure. Caloric intake (Kcal) of snacks eaten during sessions was taken as the main study outcome. No significant differences in energy intake were recorded according to brand visibility, both in children with high and low brand awareness. Exposure to TV and advertising showed no significant association with energy intake in the different groups and with the likelihood of being a high consumer. The present study suggested that brand visibility did not promote a higher caloric intake in 6-11 years old children during a snacking occasion.

Key words: Food brand, snacking, advertising, ad libitum, brand awareness, caloric intake.

RESUMEN. ¿La visibilidad de la marca en el empaque afecta el consumo en los niños? Resultados de un estudio experimental ad libitum. Los objetivos del estudio fueron el evaluar los efectos de las marcas comerciales durante una merienda en niños de entre 6 y 11 años de edad, así como analizar el efecto de diferentes niveles de conciencia de marca en el consumo de los niños. Se utilizó un diseño factorial 3x2, y se asignó al azar a 96 niños según sus puntuaciones de conciencia de marca, que fueron evaluados mediante el instrumento IBAI. El estudio se realizó en dos sesiones experimentales. En primer lugar, se presentaron 11 bocadillos (alimentos), a la mitad de los niños colocando en sus propios paquetes de marca, mientras que a la otra mitad sin marca. En un segundo recreo de la tarde, otro día, se realizó un cruce en la condición de bocadillos de marca y sin marca. Los niños fueron asignados al azar en tres grupos, según combinaciones concomitantes de exposición a la televisión y a pautas publicitarias. La ingesta calórica (Kcal) de bocadillos consumidos durante las sesiones se adoptó como principal resultado del estudio.No se registraron diferencias significativas en el consumo de energía dependiendo de la visibilidad de la marca, ni en
los niños con un alto o bajo reconocimiento de marcas. La exposición a la televisión y a la publicidad no mostró una asociación significativa con el consumo de energía en los diferentes grupos y ni con la probabilidad de ser un gran consumidor. El presente estudio sugiere que la visibilidad de las marcas no promueve una mayor ingesta calórica en niños de entre 6 y 11 años de edad en el contexto de una merienda.

Palabras clave: Marca de alimentos, refrigerio-colación, publicidad, a gusto, conocimiento de la marca, ingesta calórica.

INTRODUCTION

The growing prevalence of overweight and obesity in children has gathered an extensive interest from the scientific community (1), shifting from an initial analysis dedicated to assess the present situation and its outcomes toward a broader research targeting potential risk factors involved in its development and maintenance. The increase in childhood and adolescent obesity is leading to adverse health outcomes in the short and in the long term (2, 3), since it is deleterious to individual health, and it also results in a rising cost for the public sector. The multifactorial network characterizing obesity determinants has frequently been mentioned, in order to broaden research towards a complex scenario taking into account mutual influences and relationships (4, 5). Each node of
this net is characterized by different factors, that are modified, switched, and triggered by several macro structures, like genetics, behavior, built and social environment.

Among various factors identified as possible causes for the increase of children’s obesity, television viewing and advertising aimed at children are among the most important factors that have been linked to a reduction in physical activity and an overconsumption of food high in fat and sugar (6, 7). The mechanism is etiologically grounded on the lower caloric expenditure associated with TV viewing and the increased caloric intake due to TV-generated distraction and snack advertisements. In addition, recent studies have pointed out that, especially in overweight and obese children, preference for high carbohydrate and high fat foods is enhanced in children who are exposed to the greatest amounts of televisual media (8). Experimental studies in adults suggest that focusing attention on watching TV or listening to music while eating may disrupt the ability to regulate energy intake and promote overeating (9, 10). Similar associations were found in children, showing a positive association between TV viewing and childhood obesity (11,12), but they failed to describe the mechanisms underlying these results. Costa showed the inverse association between screen time and daily consumption of fruits, concluding that the number of television in a household is positively related to BMI in children and adolescents (13).

Literature provides such heterogeneous results referring to the impact of food advertising on children’s food consumption (14). The effect of advertising and its interaction with brand visibility during afternoon snack time has not been yet jointly investigated. Indeed, afternoon snacking has not been very much studied, and its effects, both in terms of nutrient composition and caloric intake, on dinner eating habits or its impact on after-school physical activity are still not entirely known (15).

The primary aim of the present study was to assess the effect of having brands displayed in food packaging on children’s eating behavior during an afternoon snack time. The secondary objective is to evaluate the effect of different levels of brand awareness on children’s intake. By design, TV viewing and brand advertising (displayed both on food package and on TV commercials) were taken into account as potentially intervening factors and balanced during randomization.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Design

The present study was a randomized, 3x2 factorial experimental study. For logistic purposes, the study was organized in three steps: assessment of brand awareness (Step 0), evaluation of brand visibility on children’s caloric intake (Step 1), repetition of Step 1 by crossing over the condition of branded/unbranded visibility (Step 2).

In Step 0 children were selected by means of the score reported from a modified version of the original IBAI questionnaire (16), assessing brand awareness. The total sample was then divided into two groups, one included high brand awareness (characterized by a total scoring ≥40 points) subjects, and the other, a low brand awareness (< 40 points) ones. Furthermore, each group was further assigned to one of three different conditions of TV exposure (No TV, TV, TV + advertising), resulting in 6 factorial combinations. In each category, the resulting 12 children were stratified for brand awareness, age, and gender (Table 1) and finally randomized to brand visibility. In summary, the experimental study developed in Step 1 had a 2x3 (Brand Visibility x TV and advertising exposure) full factorial design, blocked by age (two groups 6-8 and 9-11 years old), by gender (male and female) and by brand awareness. Specifically, the first factor was TV exposure, organized in 3 different levels: no TV exposure, exposure to cartoons, and exposure to cartoons and advertisements.

The second factor was the presence of the brand on the snacks given to children, and was organized in two levels: presence of the brand (branded), absence of the brand (unbranded). Step 2 was carried out equally to Step 1, but inverting the brand level in the two groups (branded snack were given to the subsample that had received an unbranded snack in Step 1, and vice versa).

Participants

Ninety-six children between 6 and 11 years of age were selected to have high and low level of brand awareness. Children were recruited as equally distributed by gender and age: forty-eight 6-8-year-olds (24 female) and forty-eight 9-11-year-olds (24 female). Children with cognitive disorders or metabolic diseases or allergies to the products offered during the experimental session were excluded. Parent informed consent was obtained for all children prior to each child’s participation in the study.Children’s participation followed the guidelines and ethics issued by APA (17). Parents were asked not to provide snacks to children in the hours before the experimental sessions.

TABLE 1. Sample stratification according to age, gender and brand awareness. Mean Brand Awareness scores, with SD in brackets.

Sample size

The sample size of 96 children was computed with reference to an alpha equal to 0.05 and a power of 0.90, which aimed at detecting at least a difference of 20 Kcal of caloric intake (assuming an equal standard deviation in the two groups of approximately 30 Kcal) between the two groups of Brand Visibility in each of the 8 randomization cells (Age x Gender x Brand Awareness).

Experimental procedure

The preliminary phase of this study (Step 0) involved sample recruitment and stratification. The sample consisted of children between 6-11 years (children attending primary school). Children were selected on the basis of their level of brand awareness assessed by means of the IBAI (Italian Brand Awareness Instrument (16); a logo-matching exercise, consisting of 30 pictures representative of food brand logos) and they were equally divided into high and low brand awareness groups.

The experiment was characterized by two experimental sessions separated by a 2-week period (Step 1 and Step 2), in which parents were asked to bring their children to the laboratory during two afternoon breaks. The project flow is presented in Figure 1. In Step 1, 11 snacks were placed on a tray, laying on their own branded packages, for half of the sample, whilst the other half of the children received a neutral tray (unbranded). After 2 weeks period, Step 2 was performed and the condition of branded/unbranded was  inverted for the same two subgroups of the sample. The snacks utilized in the experiment were Kinder Frutti©, Ferrero Brioss Albicocca©, Kinder Brioss Latte©, Kinder Delice©, Mulino Bianco Flauti Latte©, Mulino Bianco Flauti Albicocca©, Mulino Bianco Pan Goccioli©,Mulino Bianco Saccottino Albicocca©, Mulino Bianco Pan di Stelle©, Kinder Yogo Brioss©, Mulino Bianco Plum Cake©. Snacks included: cocoa biscuits (Mulino Bianco Pan di Stelle©); individually  packaged  soft  pastries  with apricot jam (Kinder Frutti©, Ferrero Brioss Albicocca©, Mulino Bianco Flauti Albicocca©, Mulino Bianco Saccottino Albicocca©, Kinder Yogo Brioss©), milk cream (Kinder Brioss Latte©, Mulino Bianco Flauti Latte©) and chocolate chips (Mulino Bianco Pan Goccioli©); individually packaged soft sponge with cocoa cream topping and filled with milk cream (Kinder Delice©); individually packaged mini-plum cakes made with yogurt (Mulino Bianco Plum Cake©). Children’s preferences towards these snacks were not investigated.

FIGURE 1. Project flow.


The two groups of children characterized by different brand awareness (high and low brand awareness) were randomized into 3 groups based on TV and advertising exposure: No TV, TV, TV and advertising. Within the “TV” subgroup, younger children watched a 16 min. episode of Disney© Lion King, while the older ones watched a 16 min. episode of Marvel© Spiderman. The advertising utilized in the third subgroup was embedded within the movies and consisted in 7 spots lasting for 3 minutes, referred to the products that children had on the tray they were facing.

All children were asked to eat ad libitum and to choose the snacks they preferred, being given 16 minutes from their first bite. All the snacks were weighed with a high-precision balance before and after each session, in order to quantify the amount of snack not eaten, therefore estimating energy intake of each child.

Measures

Socio-Demographic variables

Before the starting of the experimental session, parents were interviewed by the investigators in order to assess demographic parameters, children’s health status, behaviors, frequency of food consumption, food habits, physical activity,daily lifestyle (sleep, TV viewing, after- school care, etc.).

IBAI questionnaire

Food images represented in the 30 flash-cards of the IBAI were shown to the children (16), interviewing them on food images’ brand and product names and subsequently on the correct matching of each logo with the right food, between four choices of foods.

At the end, the interviewer asked the child on the specific name of the product. Brand Awareness Scores (IBAI-score) could range from a minimum of 0 to a maximum of 90, with a cut-off set at 40 points which was used to define the two groups: low brand awareness children (<40) and high brand awareness (≥ 40) (16).

Snacks weighing

At the beginning of the study, every snack was assigned with a specific code and was weighed in order to record these data in the software used for the study. At the end of every session, each snack the child had had was weighed once again in order to calculate the difference in terms of eaten products. All weights were collected by means of an Acculab© precision weighing scale with the capacity of 510g of and 0.1g readability.

Statistical analysis

A basic exploratory data analysis was performed on the sample and it was reported using the median (I-III quartile) for continuous variables and the percentages (absolute numbers) for categorical variables, as appropriate. The main analysis has been based on a linear model for caloric intake where the blocking factors (i.e., Gender, Age in two classes according to the randomization procedure, and Brand Awareness) have been forced to stay in the models. Repeated measurements were taken into account using the sandwich estimator of Huber-White (18, 19).

Specific investigations on single factor-level effects have been conducted using appropriate linear contrasts. To check for additional confounding factors, a further model, in addition to the base one has been developed, performing a selection among the candidate variables using the AIC criterion in the backward fashion, still forcing the inclusion of the design variables in the model.In addition, children were identified as “high consumers” if their caloric intake during the experimental session exceeded the top quartile of the observed distribution. The variables related to the probability of being a high consumer were modelled using a logistic regression model, again using the Huber-White estimator for accounting for repeated measurements, and selected via the AIC criterion in a backward fashion.The analyses have been performed using the R System (20).

RESULTS

Ninety-six children were assessed using the IBAI questionnaire and were selected to participate to the following phases, equally divided by age (6-8 and 9-11 years), gender, (male and females) and brand awareness score. They were unselected for overweight or obesity. The highest median brand awareness score was retrieved in older males (47.00), while the lowest was measured in the younger female group (26.58).

Sample characteristics (assessed by children questionnaire), in accordance to brand visibility and also to TV exposure (no TV, only TV, TV+advertising) are summarized in Table 1 along with their main characteristics in Table 2.Comparing the caloric intake of the three groups of children (no TV exposure, only TV exposure, TV+advertising exposure) when both snacks were branded and unbranded, no significant differences were recorded (Table 3), neither in Step 1 and Step 2. Despite no significant differences, we found out that, in the group of non-visible brand (Step 1), children not exposed to TV presented an intake of 100
kcal higher than those exposed to TV+spot.

Referring to the multivariable model, even after adjustment for potential confounders, we showed no significant association between increased caloric intake and Brand visibility (Table 4).


TABLE 2. Description of the sample. Summaries for categorical variables are expressed as percentage (absolute numbers in parenthesis) and for continuous variables as I quartile / median / III quartile.



Continuación...


TABLE 3. Energy intake in the experimental grid, expressed as mean Kcaloric intake. SD is given in brackets. No significant differences observed.



TABLE 4. Multivariable model to assess the association between caloric intake and other parameters recorded with children questionnaires.


Figure 2 and Figure 3 report the trends among the two brand awareness groups of total grams intake in children, exposed or not exposed to TV viewing. Children reporting high brand awareness and not exposed to TV showed lower snacks intake when brand was not visible (Figure 2), while children exposed to TV+advertising showed the same snacks intake when both the snacks were branded and unbranded, this probably because of children’s prior preferences towards the snacks, even if we did not investigate them.Additionally, among children with low brand awareness (Figure 3) exposed to TV and TV+advertising, the snack intake was lower when the brand of the snack was visible, this could be related to the fact that TV and TV+advertising exposure was distracting.

FIGURE 2. Trends of energy intake among children of the high brand awareness group, exposed or not exposed to TV viewing and package’s brand.




FIGURE 3. Trends of energy intake among children of the low brand awareness group, exposed or not exposed to TV viewing and package’s brand.



High consumer

The top quartile of energy intake corresponded to 319 Kcal. This value has been chosen as the cut-off to identify the subgroup of 21 children with higher energy intakes during the experimental session in order to investigate factors associated to higher energy intake in this snacking occasion. Table 5 shows the main characteristics of these “high consumer” children. At the multivariable analysis, no significant association was found for the experimental factor TV (p-value 0.251), Brand Visibility (p-value 0.328) or their interaction (p-value 0.177) with the “high consumer”  status.  The  only  variable associated with this status turned out to be the age group of the child. Taking the 6-8 year-old age group as reference, the Odds Ratio (OR) of being a “high consumer” was 0.45 (95% C.I. 0.23-0.89) for older children in the age group 9-11 years.

TABLE 5. Characterization of the High Consumers according to the main study variables. Values for the categorical variables are expressed as a percentage (absolute numbers in parenthesis) and those for the continuous variables as the median (I quartile / median / III quartile).



Continuación...


DISCUSSION

This study was conducted among a sample of Italian children, where TV advertising it is demonstrated to be similar to those in other countries and in particularly in US. A study published in 2010 (21), comparing food advertising in children’s TV channels of Europe, America, Australia and Asia, demonstrated that food is one
of the most advertised products in all the countries involved in the study. However, regarding the type of food advertised, it found differences among Italian and US advertising, showing that fast food and chocolate/confectionary are the most common marketed products in US and Italy respectively. These results are consistent with a study (22) conducted on Italian food advertising for children which revealed that sweets were the products most frequently advertised.

The existence of an association between TV, advertising and risk of being overweight or obese has been evaluated in numerous studies(23-25), obtaining contrasting results. This study aimed at understanding the association between food consumption during snacking times, brand visibility and TV viewing. With respect to the primary objective of the study, the assessment of the effect of TV viewing and brand advertising, the present study showed no significant effect on total energy intake. The secondary objective was to evaluate the effect of different levels of brand awareness on children’s intake. Similarly to the previous results, no significant association of increased intake was recorded in any of the two brand awareness groups, showing similar trends also for brand and TV exposure.

The results of the present study disagreed with previous research studies, where a positive association was found between advertising and TV viewing and increased energy intake. Halford and colleagues showed that 9-11-year-old (26) and 5-7 year-old (27) children increased their intake of most food types after viewing food adverts, and that the ability to correctly recognize these food adverts was significantly associated with higher food intake following food advert exposure. Similar conclusions were found by Lobstein, that in 2004 stated that the overall findings justified the need for taking precautionary measures to reduce children’s exposure to obesogenic marketing practices (11).

In our study, no significant association between brand visibility and increased caloric intake was found, neither in children with high brand-awareness nor in those with low brand-awareness.Children showed a somewhat homogeneous overall intake with a median of 3 snacks per child. When considering solely the effect of a brand on children’s snack intake, it resulted that if the packages were unbranded, children (in particular, males) tended to consume a higher number of grams of snacks, therefore increasing their caloric intake. These findings were consistent with those in Anschutz’s research, which highlighted in boys an increased susceptibility to food cues in food commercials (28).

As suggested also from the research of Francis, TV viewing could either increase or decrease children’s food intakes (25). Specifically, our study showed that in low awareness children, both TV groups experienced a decreased intake of snack when switching from unbranded towards  branded  packages.  Additionally, children not exposed to TV showed an increased intake with branded snacks in comparison with unbranded snacks. Results were nonetheless not significant. Children seemed to be more prone to eat when they weren’t distracted from any other factor, while TV viewing and brand presence didn’t modify their eating behavior towards a larger request of snacks. These findings were not in line with previous ones, which associated increased snacking behavior with screen time
(29).
 
A multivariable model was used to assess the association between increased caloric intake and other parameters recorded with children questionnaires. In the present sample, confectionery’s habitual consumption appeared to be a protective factor, showing a decreasing effect on overall caloric intake, while being a male and belonging to an older group showed a boosting effect on energy intake.

As a study limitation, it must be taken into consideration that this body of evidence emerges from an experimental study whose results can be extrapolated in the real life with caution. Nevertheless, all efforts were made to minimize biases. All the participating children attended the same school, attending the same meal supply chain and were brought in to the experimental area by their parents, not having eaten any other item before the study. In addition, the ad libitum method allowed us to focus our attention on the children’s satiety point, giving them complete freedom while they were eating the chosen snacks, without any intervention of the interviewer in terms of neither limiting their choices nor highlighting the presence of the brand on the children’s trays. Finally, we did not investigate children’s preferences towards the snacks presented in the study and consequently we could not evaluate the effect of children’s attitudes on energy intake.

Implications for Research and Practice The present study failed to prove, in an after-noon snacking occasion, an effect of TV viewing and advertising in children, even when considering the high brand awareness subgroup. While breakfast habits and their effects have been largely investigated, the role of afternoon snacking has been less studied, both from nutritional and from behavioral point of view. However, it’s crucial to widely study this snacking occasion in children, because afternoon snack presents unique characteristics that differentiate it from morning snack, especially in Italian context. While in the morning children have snack at school (which could also provide snacks, such as fruits or yogurt, as in some Italian school facilities implementing project for healthy nutrition), in the
afternoon children have snacks usually outside school so they could be exposed to TV viewing (and consequently to TV spot).

Our results might indicate that children’s attitudes to food during afternoon snacking is less modified by exposure to known and common factors like television and advertising. Further research is needed in order to guide health policies aimed at fighting childhood obesity epidemic.

SOURCE OF FUNDING

The work has been partially supported by an unrestricted grant from the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs under the programs “Programmi di alta rilevanza scientifica e tecnologica” Italia-Messico and Italia-Argentina, and from Prochild ONLUS (Italy).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The study group gratefully acknowledges Ferrero Inc. and Barilla S.p.A. for having provided all the experimental food. All authors declare to not have any conflict of interest.

CONFTICTS OF INTEREST

The authors have no competing interests

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Dietary patterns in Mexico and obesity in children

Giulia Lorenzoni, Nicola Soriani, Claudia Elena Gafare, Dario Gregori, Elena Acosta

Unit of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Public Health, Department of Cardiac, Thoracic and Vascular Sciences, University of Padova, Italy. Department of Nutrition, University of Buenos Aires and Food and Diet Therapy Service, Acute General Hospital Juan A. Fernàndez, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Centro de Investigación e Intervenciones en Nutrición Comunitaria (CIINC), Escuela de Nutrición de la Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, University of Montemorelos, Montemorelos, Nuevo León, Mexico.

SUMMARY:  This cross-sectional study aims to investigate food habits, socio-economic status and blood lipids profile in schoolchildren (10-11 years of age) living in a low-income area of Mexico (the city of Montemorelos), characterizing lipid concentrations among children obese and evaluating the impact of socio-economic factors and dietary habits on blood lipids profile of these children. Complete data were available for 156 children (78 boys and 78 girls), food habits and socio economic status were assessed using a questionnaire developed from the one previously used from the enKid study conducted on Spanish children. Food reported in the questionnaire was classified in four food groups (animal source food/legumes,  grains/tubers,  fruits/vegetables,  fats/sweets), beverages were classified separately. Blood samples were analyzed to determine concentrations of: total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose. Children were found to eat fats and sweets more frequently than other food groups. The 59 children, found to be obese and overweight, presented significant higher blood lipid levels (except to glucose levels) than normal weight kids. Using random forests, we found out that food and beverage consumption plays a key role in influencing blood lipids profile in children overweight and obese. Given these observations, it’s crucial to develop health care policies promoting healthy eating habits among schoolchildren taking into account the specific characteristics of this geographical area in Mexico.

Key words: Lipid profile, children, obesity, overweight, meal pattern.

RESUMEN. Los patrones dietéticos en México y la obesidad en los niños. Este estudio transversal tiene como objetivo investigar los hábitos alimentarios, el nivel
socioeconómico y el perfil de lípidos sanguíneos en niños en edad escolar que viven en una zona de bajos recursos en México, caracterizando las concentraciones de lípidos en niños obesos/sobrepeso y evaluar el impacto de los factores socioeconómicos y hábitos dietéticos en el perfil de lípidos de estos niños. Mediante un cuestionario utilizado previamente en el estudio enKid realizado con niños españoles lo realizaron en forma completa 156 niños (78 niños y 78 niñas), se evaluó los hábitos alimentarios y el estado socioeconómico. Los alimentos reportados en el cuestionario se clasifica en cuatro grupos de alimentos (alimentos fuente animal / legumbres, granos / tubérculos, frutas / verduras, grasas / dulces), las bebidas fueron clasificadas por separado. Se analizaron muestras de sangre para determinar las concentraciones de: colesterol total, LDL-colesterol, HDL-colesterol, triglicéridos, glucosa. Los 59 niños, obesos/sobrepeso, presentaron niveles de lípidos en sangre significativamente más altos que los niños de peso normal. Usando Selvas Aleatorias nos enteramos de que los alimentos y el consumo de bebidas juegan un rol clave para influir en el perfil de lípidos en la sangre en niños obesos/sobrepeso. Teniendo en cuenta estas observaciones, es crucial desarrollar políticas de salud que promueven hábitos alimenticios saludables entre los escolares, teniendo en cuenta las características específicas de esta área geográfica en México.

Palabras clave: Perfil lipídico, niños, obesidad, sobre-peso, modelo de comidas.

INTRODUCTION

Investigating factors that influence blood lipid concentrations is of great interest, referring especially to the impact of food habits on biochemical profile. Meal frequency appears to be associated to lipid concentrations: both adults (1, 2) and children (3) who have daily higher meal frequency seem to present better biochemical profile (low levels of total cholesterol and LDL). Breakfast particularly seems to play a key role in influencing blood lipids: adults (4) and children (5) who report to eat breakfast regularly show better biochemical profiles than those who skip breakfast. Referring, more specifically, to the effect of food consumption on lipid profile, junk food consumption among adults is related to higher lipids concentrations (6). In addition, it is demonstrated (7, 8) that children who eat processed food and food containing saturated fat present higher blood lipids concentrations.

Understanding the impact of food habits on blood lipids profile is important, especially in the context of childhood obesity, because several studies (9-12), investigating blood lipid profile among school children, find out higher lipid concentrations among overweight and obese children compared to normal weight ones. Biochemical impairments in children (especially in those overweight/obese) could lead to the early onset of atherosclerotic process and metabolic alterations (impaired glucose  tolerance,  high  concentrations of inflammatory biomarkers) resulting in higher risk of developing cardiovascular and endocrine diseases in early adulthood. Given the increased risk of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, biochemical alterations in obese children represent a concerning public health burden, worsened by the high prevalence of overweight and obesity in both industrialized and emerging countries: the NHANES investigation (13), conducted between 2011 and 2012 among US population, shows that 34.2% of children (6-11 years of age) were overweight or obese in accordance to CDC growth standards (14) . Similar rates are reported from the ENSANUT survey (15) (conducted among Mexican population in 2012), showing a prevalence of overweight and obesity among Mexican school children (5-11 years of age) of 34.4%.

Therefore it’s crucial to characterize blood lipid profiles among overweight/obese children (especially among Latino ones who seem to be more prone to metabolic impairments compared to other ethnic groups (16)), investigating factors that play a key role in determining lipid concentrations in order to orientate health care
policies.

This study aims to investigate socio-economic characteristics, food habits and blood lipid profile among school children in the city of Montemorelos (a low income living area located in Mexico), characterizing lipid concentrations among overweight/obese children and evaluating the impact of socio-economic features and food habits in influencing lipid profile among these children.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This cross sectional study is based on data from a survey conducted in school children of 19 school facilities in the city of Montemorelos (Nuovo Leon, Mexico). The aim of the study was to investigate socio-economic characteristics, eating habits, anthropometric data and blood’s lipid profile of the enrolled children. Children were eligible for the study if they attended the fifth school grade (10-11 years of age). Their parents were asked to complete an informed consent document before the enrollment. Complete data were available for 156 children (78 boys and 78 girls). The instrument used for data collection was adapted from the one previously used in the enKid study (17) on Spanish children. Mothers were asked to fill the questionnaire.

Socio-economic characteristics

Socio-economic  characteristics  regarded parents’ working status (worker and housewife for mothers, intellectual and manual worker for fathers), educational level (considered as low, referring to primary education, and medium-high, referring to secondary and post-secondary education) and living conditions (house of
property, house for rent or council house)

Eating habits

Eating habits are represented by weekly food consumption, meal frequency, breakfast consumption  and  mealtime  characteristics (distractions at mealtime, with whom children have meals, where children have meals outside home). Food consumption was classified using the three food groups (grains and tubers, fruits and vegetables, animal source food and legumes) indicated from “el Plato del Bien Comer” (established from the official Mexican norm NOM 043-SSA2-2005 (18)).
In order to classify all the food types reported in the questionnaire, we considered a further food group including fats and sweets. The classification is based on the nutritional values of the food included in every food group: fruits and vegetables are a source of vitamins and minerals, diary and animal food source content
proteins, grains and tubers bring carbohydrates and vitamins. Beverages were classified separately from food, including milk, soft drinks, fruit juices, coffee and tea and licuados (a traditional Latin American beverage made of milk and fruit, sometimes added with sugar, honey, oat or ice).

Anthropometric measurements and blood lipid profile

Anthropometric  measurements  were performed by trained researchers in a room provided by every school facility involved in the study. Height and weight were measured while children were barefoot and wearing light clothes. BMI (Kg/m 2 ) was calculated as weight (kg) divided by height (m) squared. Children were classified to be overweight/obese with a BMI ≥85 percentiles, as recommended by CDC growth standards (14).

Venous blood samples were collected after an overnight fast. The collection of blood samples was performed by three trained laboratory technicians from 7:00 a.m. to 8:00 a.m. in a dedicated room of the same school facilities attended from children enrolled in the study. Blood samples were stored in special containers to maintain proper conditions until the analysis and transported to the laboratory of the “La Carlota” hospital where the biochemical analyses were performed.Glucose, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol and TAG concentrations were determined using the Reagent Set, Pointe Scientific, Inc. Michigan, U.S.A.

Statistical analyses

Descriptive statistics report continuous data as median [I and III quartiles] and categorical data as percentages (absolute number). The role played by each factor potential influencing  the  concentration  of  total cholesterol, HDL, LDL, triglycerides and glucose was estimated using Random Forest, consisting in 500 bootstrap replication of the classification and regression tree. Statistical analyses were performed using R system (19) and random forest library (20).

RESULTS

Sample characteristics are summarized in Table 1. Children attend the fifth school grade (10-11 years of age). Most of children watch television more than 3 hours every day. Regarding eating habits, the number of fats and sweets’ servings per week is higher than the number of servings of animal source food and legumes, grains and tubers, fruits and vegetables. Additionally, children drink the same number of weekly servings of milk and soft drinks. Referring to meal frequency, despite the fact that the majority of children have breakfast every day, most of them are reported to have only 2 meals per day. This could be related to the fact that enrolled children do not have lunch or dinner, but we could also hypothesize that this result depends on a misunderstood meal definition (indicating as an occasion of food consumption) conducting mothers to do not consider breakfast as a meal occasion and counting only lunch and dinner.

TABLE 1. Sample characteristics. Continuous data are median [I and III quartiles], categorical data are percentages (absolute number).



However, we do not investigate specifically if children have lunch and dinner every day.In accordance to the CDC growth standards (14), 37.8% of children are overweight or obese. Comparing normal weight and overweight/ obese children (Table 2), we find out significant higher concentrations of total cholesterol, HDL, LDL and triglycerides in children overweight/obese. However, glucose concentration was higher in normal weight children, this probably because blood sugar concentration could depend on other factors above body weight.

Figures from 1 to 5 show the role played from socio-economic factors and eating habits (sorted from the highest to the lowest score) in influencing concentrations of total cholesterol, HDL, LDL, triglycerides and glucose. Results demonstrate that eating habits, referring to food and beverage consumption particularly,influence blood’s lipid profile the most.

TABLE 2. Blood lipid profile in accordance to normal weight and overweight/obese children. Data are median [I and III quartiles].


FIGURE 1. Distribution of factors associated with total cholesterol in overweight/obese children.


Figures show that the consumption of fruit and vegetables, animal source food and legumes, grains and tubers, fats and sweets and beverages, along with the number of meals per day, play a key role in influencing lipid concentrations. The weight of each type of food and beverage consumption differentiates little considering lipid concentrations one by one. Milk is reported to impact the most among total cholesterol, that’s probably due to a high consumption of whole milk, despite guidelines for Mexican population recommend consumption of low fat milk for children over 2 years of age (21). Also HDL is influenced the most by beverage consumption, represented by soft drinks, along with daily meal frequency.
 
Animal source food influences both glucose and triglycerides, while the latter is influenced also by fruits and vegetables consumption. The impact of breakfast consumption, meal characteristics and socio-economic factors is less important than food consumption among all the investigated lipid concentrations.

FIGURE 2. Distribution of factors associated with HDL in overweight/obese children.


FIGURE 3. Distribution of factors associated with LDL in overweight/obese children.


FIGURE 4. Distribution of factors associated with triglycerides in overweight/obese children.


FIGURE 5. Distribution of factors associated with glucose in overweight/obese children.

DISCUSSION

This study is based on a survey conducted in schoolchildren of Montemorelos (a geographical area located in the north of Mexico). It aimed to investigate eating habits, socio-economic status and blood lipid profiles of children living in the city of Montemorelos, characterizing lipid concentrations among normal weight and overweight/obese children and assessing the impact of socio-economic factors and food habits in influencing blood lipid concentrations (total cholesterol, HDL, LDL, triglycerides, glucose) of overweight/obese kids.

Consistently with other studies conducted in US (22) and in Mexican population (23), we found out higher weekly consumption of fats and sweets compared to fruit/vegetables, animal source food/legumes, grains/tubers, despite the efforts of Mexican government to promote an healthy diet based on the consumption of the three food groups recommended from “el Plato del Bien Comer” (10). Additionally, in accordance to CDC growth standards (14), the prevalence of children overweight or obese is 37.8%, which is barely higher than the prevalence of overweight and obesity in Mexican schoolchildren (15) (34.4% among boys and girls from 5 to 11 years old). This higher prevalence of obesity and overweight is probably related to the fact that the living area of Montemorelos presents unique characteristics: the population living in this area is reported from the local health units to be at high risk of chronic and infectious diseases due to low socio-economic status, inadequate eating habits and living conditions.

Referring to blood lipid concentrations, we found out higher lipid concentrations in children overweight or obese. These results were reported also from other studies (9-12) which demonstrated that obese children present higher lipid concentrations that could lead to early development of atherosclerotic process and of metabolic abnormalities with consequently higher risk of developing complications in early adulthood (cardiovascular and metabolic diseases particularly), highlighting the need of public policies preventing overweight and obesity in childhood.

Investigating the impact of eating habits and socio-economic factors on blood lipid concentrations, we demonstrated the key role of food and beverage consumption in influencing the lipid profile. Other studies (7, 8) showed the importance of food intake in determining high  lipid  concentrations,  founding  out especially  a  significant  correlation  of processed food and saturated fat consumption with lipoprotein concentrations. Additionally, we found out that also daily meal frequency play a key role in impacting lipoprotein concentrations, especially regarding HDL-cholesterol, in accordance to other studies demonstrating that higher meal frequency is related to better lipid profiles (1-3). However random forest does not specify the type of relationship (positive or negative) between the
influencing factors (eating habits and socio-economic characteristics) and the outcomes (lipid concentrations), this approach shows only the weight of each factor in influencing the outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrated a higher prevalence of children overweight or obese compared to Mexican schoolchildren general population, additionally we reported higher blood lipid concentrations among these children, founding out that food and beverage consumption play a key role in influencing lipids profile. From these observations evolved the need of developing health care policies promoting healthy eating habits and physical activity among schoolchildren and their families taking into account the unique characteristics of the population living in this specific geographical area of Mexico.

SOURCE OF FUNDING

The work has been partially supported by an unrestricted grant from the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs under the programs “Programmi di alta rilevanza scientifica e tecnologica” Italia-Messico and Italia-Argentina, and from Prochild ONLUS (Italy).

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Long term interaction between dietary patterns and disease incidence: Evidence from Serbia

Tatjana Brankov, Slavica Zec, Claudia Elena Gafare, Dario Gregori, Koviljko Lovre

Faculty of Economics Subotica, University of Novi Sad (Serbia). Unit of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Public Health, Department of Cardiac, Thoracic and Vascular Sciences, University of Padova (Italy). Department of Nutrition, University of Buenos Aires and Food and Diet Therapy Service, Acute General
Hospital Juan A. Fernàndez, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

SUMMARY:  The objective of this study was to evaluate the relationship between dietary pattern and incidence of nutrition-related non-communicable diseases in Serbia, a country which has experienced a significant shift in nutrition and lifestyle habits, guided by its particular historical background and its rapid transition to liberal economy. Data was collected from annual reports published by the Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia and the Institute of Public Health. It provides a focus on the timeframe of 1997-2014, in order to capture any changing pattern after the year 2000, in which the process of complete trade liberalization started.The results have shown a striking growing trend in both disease incidence on the one hand and processed food items such as processed meat, fruit juices, chocolate and biscuits and on the other hand. Granger causality test suggests that there exists causality that goes beyond spurious relationship between the disease of blood and blood-forming organs and immune system disorders and average per capita consumption of fruit and vegetables, poultry, processed meat, chocolates and biscuits and fruit juices. Also, we find evidence of long-term relationship between fish consumption and endocrine, metabolic and digestive diseases.

Key words: Food pattern, disease incidence, economy liberalization, processed food.

RESUMEN. La interacción a largo plazo entre los hábitos alimentarios y la incidencia de enfermedades: La evidencia de Serbia. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar la relación entre los patrones de dieta y la incidencia de las enfermedades no transmisibles relacionadas con la nutrición en Serbia, un país que ha experimentado un cambio significativo en los hábitos de nutrición y estilo de vida, guiado por sus antecedentes históricos particulares y su rápida transición hacia una economía liberal. Se recogieron datos de los informes anuales publicados por la Oficina de Estadística de la República de Serbia y el Instituto de Salud Pública. Se hizo foco en el período de 1997 a 2014, con el fin de poder detectar cualquier cambio en los patrones a partir del año 2000, cuando comenzó el proceso de liberalización total del comercio. Los resultados han mostrado llamativamente una tendencia creciente tanto en la incidencia de enfermedades como en la proliferación de alimentos procesados, tales como carne procesada, jugos de frutas, chocolate y galletas. La prueba de causalidad de Granger sugiere que existe una relación de causalidad que va más allá de la relación espuria entre las enfermedades hematológicas, las afecciones de los órganos hematopoyéticos y del sistema inmunológico y el consumo promedio per cápita de frutas y hortalizas, productos avícolas, carne procesada, chocolates, galletas y jugos de frutas. Parece evidente también la existencia de una relación a largo plazo entre la aparición de enfermedades endocrinas, metabólicas y digestivas y el consumo de pescado.

Palabras clave: Patrones alimentarios, incidencia de la enfermedad, liberalización de la economía, alimentos procesados.

INTRODUCTION

Nutritional pattern, commonly defined as a “Western diet”, is typically characterized by high intake of refined carbohydrates, added sugars, fats and animal-source foods on the one hand and low intake of legumes and coarse grains, on the other (1). It strongly influenced many traditional food and cuisine (1), and become a feature of modern dietary patterns in many low and middle-income countries (2). Food pattern modifications rose with new technology development and diffusion, income growth and retail globalization (1,3).
 
Commercial interactions between nations affect food chain through leveraging the importance of import, allow a global spread of supermarkets (thanks to the Foreign Direct Investments) and contribute to evolution of preferences and cultural expectations of population via commercial promotion of food (4). New technologies, among other things, contributed to a worldwide increase in use of caloric sweeteners and vegetable oils such as soybean, sunflower, rapeseed, palm and groundnut oil (2–5). Individual intake of inexpensive vegetable oils increased threefold to six fold throughout the developing world (1).Furthermore, the increase in per-capita income,together with population growth and progressive urbanization is highly correlated with “livestock revolution”, resulting in an unprecedented growth in demand for food of animal origin in developing countries (6) as well as consumption of a more processed food (1,7). Retailing globalization, with an enormous impact on the market structure in transition and developing countries (8,9), provides access to many new empty calorie foods and beverages and reduces the intake of fresh food, which represents an important source of nutrition.

Different studies have discussed potential adverse effect of the penetration of transnational food and drink companies on public health in developing and developed countries (10, 11). A displacement of traditional food systems has the potential to undermine public health more in low and middle income countries than in high-income countries, which already industrialized their dietary patterns (3). The dietary changes are very rapid and most probably will continue to evolve without suitable policy intervention (12–15). “Nutrition transition” occurs concomitantly with two remarkable processes: demographic transition and epidemiological transition related to urban-industrial lifestyles. This results in an increased prevalence of obesity and contributes to the incidence of chronic and degenerative diseases (2). Now, nutrition-related non-communicable diseases (NCDs), most particularly cardiovascular disease (CVD) and some types of cancer, replaced previously dominant transmissible diseases in low and middle income countries.CVDs constitute the largest cause of mortality,representing 31% of all global deaths in 2012 (16). Over three quarters of CVD deaths take place in low and middle income countries affecting a nation’s economic development through
loss of income and the high cost of medical care (17).“Western diet” nutritional patterns,as well as frequent consumption of processed and ultra-processed food,promote obesity, metabolic syndrome, CVDs and, most probably, favor autoimmune diseases (18).

However, Serbia is a very particular case of middle-income country: it is one of the transition economies in Central and Southeastern Europe (CEEs), whose system rapidly switched from planned to market economy after the 1990’s. In pre-transitional era only a limited range of food items were available, but due to low food prices and significant state agriculture subsidies, the typical diet found in these countries had features of high-income diets: a significant consumption
of livestock products (19). Since the grain production was highly subsidized, bread was often used to feed livestock in small farms (20).Also, public health expenditures (as a percentage of GDP), was significantly higher in socialist countries than in most middle-income countries (20).

The biggest hyperinflation after World War II that has hit Serbia in the 1990s, gray economy, civil war, an influx of about one million refugees, international economic sanction – are all factors that contributed halving the size of the Serbian economy with respect to the early 1990s. (21). Despite severe economic difficulties, Serbia has preserved its strong agricultural basis as it has historically been an important agricultural producer for both domestic and export market (19). Furthermore, there is a strong culinary tradition and efforts to preserve traditional food products and food cuisine (22).

Taking into account abrupt changes which occurred upon opening of the borders for competitive import, reduction of agricultural subsidies and shrinking of value added in agriculture, deterioration of social safety nets, (20) it is no wonder that important changes were experienced in terms of prevalent dietary patterns. It is interesting to notice that the evolution in food consumption did not concern the expansion of food quantity in a measure in which it concerned the diversification of available food items (20).

It is believed that Serbian population has been heavily affected by wars, disintegration and political crisis, resulting in an increased mortality from cancer and ischemic heart disease during the past two decades (23, 24). Since the 1990s, NCDs have represented a major cause of death, where cardiovascular diseases are the top ranked, followed by cancers (25). Dietary risk, along with tobacco smoking and high blood pressure, account for the most of the disease burden (26). Aging population and high burden of NCD mortality resulted in a continuously increasing crude death rate, which reached 13.97% in 2008. According to the national health survey in 2006, 54.5% of adult population were overweight and 18% children aged 7–18 were at least moderately obese. Only 23% of adult population reported undertaking physical activity on daily basis, with 67% of adults being physically inactive (27). The aim of this paper is to provide consistent evidence about the long term relationship between dietary pattern and incidence of NCDs, in a very particular setting of Serbia which has undergone one of the most unstable transition experience in the CEEs.

Our literature review did not show many articles interested in the in analyses of long-term relationship between dietary pattern and disease incidents (28–30) To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to document a significant shift in dietary pattern, and addresses the relationship between food consumption and incidence of broad categories of non-communicable diseases.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Data collection

Time series data about average per-capita food consumption is taken from the Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia (31). Yearly data on diagnosed disease incidence was taken from the Institute of Public Health of Serbia “Dr Milan Jovanovic Batut” (32). Diseases, conditions and injuries in primary health service, provided by state-owned primary health centers are presented in uniform lists in accordance with the International Classification of Diseases – 10th Revisions (33). We have analyzed four groups of diseases: diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs and certain disorders involving the immune mechanism (D50-D89), diseases of the circulatory system (I00-I99), endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases (E00-E90) and diseases of the digestive system (K00-K93) (Table 1).

We have selected relevant food categories that constitute a typical household diet, aggregating over certain food items. The categories are bread and paste products, fresh fruit and vegetables, milk products (fresh and fermented), red meat (beef, pork and goat), processed meat (dried bacon, dried meat boneless, dried meat with bones, salami and sausages all kinds, hot dogs, etc.), fish, poultry, fruit juices, processed snack food (sweets and biscuits) and total fat. The data refers to the time frame of 1997-2014. We chose this period to evaluate the changes after the year 2000, the year of economy “opening”, which can be considered as the year when the process of complete trade liberalization started.

TABLE 1. International Classification of Diseases – 10th Revisions



The conclusion relates to the “opening” of the economy since 2000 relating to the completely closed economy until then. After parliamentary elections in December 2000, the EU lifts tariffs on import of goods from Federal Republic Yugoslavia (The Republics of Serbia and Montenegro together established a federation in 1992) and the prospect of a Stabilization and Association Process was settled, in accordance with decisions of the EU Council (34). This has exposed agricultural producers to the increasing international trade competition. Besides this, Serbia has the signed Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA)- agreements on free trade with the CEFTA countries, as well as free trade agreements with Russia, Turkey and Belarus. As a consequence, the aggregate supply of agricultural and food products has exceeded the demand in the period after the 2000 (35).

Statistical analysis

Multivariate time series analysis was conducted using as a reference standard cointegration approach. Pearson correlation coefficient and generalized regression modeling were used as a starting point, to underline problem of spurious relationship between the time series. Dickey- Fuller test was used to confirm level non- stationarity of the series, which can be visualized through graphical inspection (see Figure 1 and Figure 2). The order of the integration was determined using Kwiatkowski–Phillips–Schmidt–Shin (KPSS) tests, where the null hypothesis was that an observable time series is trend stationary against the alternative of a unit root (36). Since we have found that most series are of order 1, we have used a bivariate multivariate time series approach to establish long run relationship between the food pattern and disease. In particular, Granger causality test was used determine whether the lagged dietary pattern provide statistically significant information about the current values of outcomes (37).

RESULTS

There is an evident growing trend in both disease incidence and food items such as processed meat, fruit juices and chocolate and biscuits in the observed period (see Figure 1 and Figure 2). Most notably, endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases (E00-E90) incidence rates have almost quintupled from 0.02 in 1997 to more than 0.09 in 2014. Circulatory diseases (I00-I99) have doubled from 0.15 to more than 0.30. Prevalence of blood forming and autoimmune diseases (D50-D89) and diseases of the digestive system (K00-K93) has also increased for 58% and 26%, respectively. In relation to food consumption, the highest growth can be observed in the consumption of fruit juices, and chocolate and biscuits, 9.3 and 6.6 times, respectively. Processed meat consumption has increased almost 2.5 times.

Regarding fresh meat, the largest increase in total consumption is recorded for chicken (about 45%). The consumption of individual edible oil, fresh fruits and vegetables and total fish had also increased for 38%, 18%, and 32%, respectively. In the same period of time, consumption of fresh milk and yogurt has decreased by 23%. Similar declining trend can be noticed in consumption of bakery and paste
products.

FIGURE 1. Serbian trends in non-communicable disease incidence (annual incidence rate per 1000 people on y axis).


FIGURE 2.Serbian trends in dietary patterns (average quantity consumed annually per household member on y axis)



Preliminary descriptive (graphically represented Pearson coefficient) suggest that there is strong interdependency between the dietary patterns and the annual incidence of non-communicable diseases (see Figure 3). Bread and paste products and milk products and fermented derivatives seem to have a risk-protective relationship with all the four disease groups. Fruit juices, processed snack good (defined as sweets and biscuits) and processed meat seems to be strongly positively correlated with the disease incidence.However, since unit root test confirms that the series are not stationary, the assumptions behind standard linear modeling can be violated, hence the correlations shown in Figure 3 might be misleading.

In order to investigate the nature of stationarity of the series, we have performed KPSS tests on each series (see Table 2). Non-significant p-value (with p>0.05) means that the series is stationary around a deterministic (increasing or decreasing) trend. The lag order refers to the order of integration of the series.

FIGURE 3. Pearson Correlation coefficient between the diseases and food pattern.


What we find is that, among all, only several time series (bread and pastry products, fish and red meat) are trend stationary. This means that they remain stable around the deterministic trend and are hardly influenced by external shocks. All other series are “shock sensitive”, meaning that any external shock (an event that has impact on the time series) permanently affects the series. In each case (trend stationary or integrated time series), standard assumptions for linear modeling fail, hence an alternative approach for testing the association between the dietary pattern and disease incidence is necessary.

Table 3 presents a more rigorous statistical testing using Granger causality test for long run relationship between the variables. Significant p-value means that the past values of the independent variable (diet) are significant in predicting dependent variable (disease) up to the lag indicated in the brackets. This test suggests that there exists causality between the disease of blood and blood-forming organs and certain disorders involving the immune mechanism (D50-D89) and average consumption of fruit and vegetables (p= 0.03), poultry (p=0.02), processed meat (p=0.02) sweets and biscuits (p=0.04) and fruit juices (p=0.03). The same test suggests causality between both endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases (E00-E90) and diseases of the digestive system (K00-K93) (p=0.05 and p=0.04, respectively) and fish consumption. We found no significant relation between diseases of the circulatory system (I00-I99) and specified food items.

TABLE 2. Unit root test for trend stationarity of the data.


TABLE 3. Bivariate Granger causality (significant p-value and lag in the parenthesis)



DISCUSSION

Serbian background

Road border changes, wars, coexistence of different nations resulted in very heterogeneous cuisine. Traditional Serbian cuisine is based on Slavic traditions with strong Mediterranean (Byzantine/Greek),  Oriental  (Turkish)  and Hungarian influences (38). Many food items such as relish from bell peppers or eggplant, jams, jellies, pickled food, sausages, clotted cream, yogurts, syrupy fruit conserve as well as fruit brandy are homemade. The Serbian diet is traditionally heavy on grilled meat, sausages, local cheeses and bread. There are a number of local dishes which highlight this, such as pljeskavica (mixture of lamb or pork and beef, grilled with onions and served hot on fresh bread) and rostilj (various unseasoned grilled meat and can include chicken wrapped in bacon and stuffed with cheese). In recent years, bakeries can be found everywhere in Serbia and cater to the food to go aspect of life (39).

After the Second World War, new Yugoslavian agricultural policy (development of social farms, new approach to cooperatives, stimulation of personal labor, price investments) has resulted in a very rapid growth of agricultural production. In the period 1957-1980 the group activities, directly dependent on the production of raw materials have recorded extremely rapid development. The food industry (meat, fruit and vegetables processing as well as milk preserving and drink production) overshadowed the food processing in households. Rapid supply growth was registered for bread grains, fats, fruits, sugar, ready to eat meals and drink (40). The share of the agricultural population, total and active, decreased in the period 1948 -1980 from 67 or 73% to only 29 or 38% (41). These very fast socio-economic changes in Yugoslavia had a significant impact on food patterns causing consumption growth of finished and semi-finished products(38).
 
After a period of economic and political uncertainty (1990-2000) Serbia started new era of “democratic changes”, the process of complete trade liberalization started, the growth of GDP began and urbanization brought changes in lifestyle. All these elements resulted in changes in food habits of the population. One theory states that a key constituent is penetration of modern supermarkets (42). After the privatization of the retail sector and the establishing of the first supermarket chains, this region faced an inflow of foreign supermarket chains: Belgian Delhaize Group, German Metro Group, French Intermarché, Slovenian Mercator and the Croatian Agrokor. Slovenian chain Mercator as well as Veropulus Super Market Group (Super Vero) opened its first hypermarket in Belgrade in 2002. Intermarché has been present in Serbia through local brand Interex since 2004 when it opened its first supermarket. Idea (Agrokor Group) and Metro Cash&Carry are retails chain with a constant market share growth since 2005, when the first store was opened in Belgrade.Socio-economic conditions and population health are inextricably linked, and strongly interdependent(32) and Serbia has been a rather good example to confirm this theory. In parallel with ‘westernization’ process of food habits (43) Serbia has experienced the general deterioration of public health (44). Adulthood obesity prevalence  forecasts  (2010–2030)  predict that in 2020, 44% of men and 31% of women will be obese (45). Top three causes of death in the period 2000-2012 were CVDs: stroke, cardiomyopathy- myocarditis and ischaemic heart disease (31,46). One study has shown the markedly increasing trends in mortality rates from ischemic heart disease in man during 1991-2010 periods (30).

Public Health Nutrition Implications

Disease yearly incidence rate trend graphs (Figure 1) show some striking evidence about the increase in all the considered groups of diseases. While circulatory diseases incidence rates have doubled, metabolic and endocrine diseases have almost quintupled. Even digestive and blood forming and immune diseases show an upward trend, although less systematic and more disperse around the mean. The evolution of cardiovascular disease trends in Serbia is in line with several eastern European countries, notably Russian federation, where CVDs mortality remains high (47). Trends regarding endocrine, metabolic and nutritional diseases are coherent with trends in many countries, especially if we consider overweight, obesity and diabetes which become a global health challenge (48).

Like in the developing world, where diets are shifting rapidly and going to high consumption of fat, sweets, animal source food and processed food (2,14), similar trend is observed in Serbia. The evolution of dietary patterns in general is also in accordance with Mediterranean countries, such as Greece where consumption of animal  fats and high-calorie foods is increasing(49). In the 18 period time frames it appears that the Serbian population has evolved its preferences (on average) towards certain food items: there is an important increase in consumption of poultry, processed meat, chocolate and biscuits, fruit juices and edible oils. This means that despite the efforts to preserve culinary heritage (majority of consumers eat at home and like cooking) and traditional food as a response to modernization processes (22,50) Serbia did not resist changes that are happening in the rest of the world.

From 2002 to 2003 there has been a structural break, driven by opening new hypermarket stores (Mercator, Super Vero and Univerexport) in 2002 and huge increase in per capita gross national income (GNI) from USD 1.590 in 2002 to USD 2.130 in 2003 (51). This has fostered a significant shift in consumption of these goods, and can be observed in our data (see Figure 2). Upward trends are present, although less striking, in red meat, fish, eggs and fruit and vegetable
consumption. On the contrary, downward trend brought milk products from 95 l per capita to 75 l per capita. Similar trend occurred in bakery and paste products consumption.

Since the dietary pattern and disease incidence rate move together in parallel, descriptive evidence does suggest that there is strong relationship between the consumption of certain food items and disease insurgence. However, claiming causality in these type of studies is overly ambitious tasks, especially for the fact that in the multivariate time series context, testing for linear relationship between the variables might lead to erroneous results due to spurious relationship problem. However, long-term causality test has confirmed causality between the certain diseases, especially blood forming diseases, and a range of food items (processed meat, junk food, fruit and vegetable, etc.). However, these results should be interpreted overall, as a descriptive evidence of a trend in dietary pattern which had both strong trend and structural break and lead to non-ignorable consequences in disease incidence.

Most probably, dietary modifications should form the ground for action for all four group diseases prevention. To find ways to push people to change their dietary habits into more a healthy diet is the challenge for coming years for national competent authorities (52). This going to be particularly difficult in Serbia since there is an insufficient involvement of the state regarding adoption of national dietary guidelines (53).

CONClUSIONS

National statistical data provides striking evidence about the ”Nutrition transition”, in particular the shift in consumption of processed food items such as processed meat, fruit juices, chocolate and biscuits. Our results indicate that this dietary transition represents one strong potential driver of chronic conditions. The analysis shows strong evidence of correlation between consumption of certain food items and blood forming disease, although a more detailed data would probably allow for a clearer identification of causal patterns and long-run interactions.

Although this represents a rather descriptive study of a very complex phenomena, to the extent of our knowledge, it is the first study to address the issue of long-term associations between the shift in diet orientation and chronical conditions in Serbia. As described, Serbia represents a very unusual context where it would be particularly relevant to broaden the knowledge in the field of nutrition-related morbidity. Lack of consistant academic programs in nutrition and national
dietary guidelines represent important obstacles to building an efficient food and health system, which would ensure strengthening the population resilience to nutritional risks.

Monitoring of the situation is extremely important, since it represents the stepping stone for evidence-based action, necessary to tackle the burden in terms of public health cost. Longitudinal country-level data allows for general monitoring of the evolution of dietary habits and disease epidemiology, however only individual level data would allow for further inspection of the mechanisms through which policy action and nutrition yields health effects.

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What is breakfast for Mexican children?

Dario Gregori, Nicola Soriani, Claudia Elena Gafare, Giulia Lorenzoni

Unit of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Public Health, Department of Cardiac,Thoracic and Vascular Sciences, University of Padova, Italy. Department of Nutrition,
University of Buenos Aires and Food and Diet Therapy Service, Acute General Hospital Juan A. Fernàndez, Buenos Aires, Argentina

SUMMARY:  In order to face with the concerning rising prevalence of overweight and obesity in childhood, Mexican government has implemented Nutritional Indications (NI) for preschool and schoolchildren. The aim of our study is to investigate what Mexican children have for breakfast and if they meet NI, which recommends that daily breakfast should include one food from each of the three recommended food groups (grains and tubers, animal source food and legumes, fruits and vegetables). We considered a sample of 120 male children aged 3-14 years, their mothers were asked to complete a questionnaire and to fill a breakfast diary for one week. Food was grouped in the three recommended food groups and a further group including fats and sweets was considered. Only 32 children met NI at least once a week (compliant children) and nobody followed NI throug-hout the week. The analysis on breakfast records showed a low intake of the fruits and vegetables food group. Children were more likely to follow NI when they had breakfast with family members. We show that children do not meet
breakfast’s NI, but further researches are needed to investigate the long-term impact of NI on Mexican children eating patterns.

Key words: Breakfast, children, Mexico, nutritional recommendations.

RESUMEN. ¿Qué es un desayuno para los niños mexicanos? Para hacer frente al aumento de la prevalencia de sobrepeso y obesidad en la infancia, el Gobierno Mexicano ha implementado las indicaciones nutricionales (IN) para niños en etapas preescolar y escolar. El objetivo de nuestro estudio es investigar los componentes del desayuno en la dieta de niños Mexicanos, además del cumplimiento con las IN, que recomiendan que el desayuno diario debe incluir un alimento de cada uno de los tres grupos alimenticios recomendados (granos y tubérculos, alimentos de origen animal, y legumbres, frutas y verduras). Se consideró una muestra de 120 niños (de género masculino) con edades entre 3 y 14 años. Se solicitó a sus madres completar un cuestionario y realizar un registro diario de los componentes del desayuno durante una semana. Los alimentos se agruparon según dictan las IN; además, un grupo que incluye grasas y dulces fue también considerado. Sólo 32 niños cumplieron con las IN al menos una vez a la semana (los niños que cumplen) y ninguno siguió las IN durante toda la semana. El análisis sobre los registros diarios mostró un bajo consumo del grupo de alimentos compuesto por frutas y verduras. El justo seguimiento de las IN ha sido más probable cuando el desayuno se ha realizado con miembros de la familia. Se demuestra que los niños no cumplen el IN del desayuno, pero se necesitan más investigaciones para investigar el impacto a largo plazo de IN sobre los hábitos alimenticios de los niños mexicanos.

Palabras clave: Desayuno, niños, México, recomendaciones nutricionales.

INTRODUCTION

The rising prevalence of pediatric overweight and obesity, especially among Latino children and adolescents, represents a worryingly health care burden (1). The Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición (2) (ENSANUT) shows that the prevalence of overweight and obesity in Mexican children under 5 years was increased from 8.8% in 1999 to 9.7% in 2012. Regarding children between 5 and 11 years the prevalence of overweight and obesity was increased from 26.9% in 1999 to 34.4% in 2012 and the prevalence of obesity is higher among boys than girls.

The risk of developing cardiovascular (coronary artery disease, hypertension) and metabolic (type 2 diabetes) diseases in early adulthood is higher among children and adolescents who are obese (3). Additionally, it has been demonstrated that Latino children are at higher risk (than non-Latino ones) of suffering from impaired glucose tolerance due to beta-cell dysfunction, which represents the preliminary stage of type 2 diabetes (4). Thus, the need for preventive policies promoting healthy lifestyle and nutrition.

In order to face with overweight and obesity epidemic and its consequences, especially among children and adolescents, Mexican government provides the “Estrategia contra el sobrepeso y la obesidad” (5) which promotes a specific action program that takes place in preschools, primary schools and secondary schools, starting from 2010-2011 academic year. It aims to promote physical activity and healthy eating habits (reduction of fat and sugar intake, increasing consumption of fruits, vegetables and cereals). To implement the project, Mexican government carries out an educational program that involves Mexican families in order to improve eating habits of children also outside school: it suggests what type of food children should take in different eating occasions (breakfast, lunch, dinner and snacks), taking into account that dietary habits play a key role in influencing the risk of childhood obesity. More specifically, it has been shown that breakfast patterns are related to weight gain and nutrient intake of children and adolescents: several studies (6-9) demonstrate that breakfast skipping is associated with increased risk of overweight and obesity among children (10). Additionally, subjects who skip breakfast are reported to present a lack of many nutrients (particularly of vitamins, minerals and dietary fiber) (11). Not only breakfast skipping, but also breakfast composition is important: having a balanced breakfast appears to be associated with children’s better food habits and nutrient intake (12).

Given the importance of breakfast consumption and composition in children’s weight gain, dietary patterns and nutrient intake, in this study we aim to investigate what Mexican children have for breakfast and if they follow the Nutritional Indications (NI) provided by the “Estrategia contra el sobrepeso y la obesidad”.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study design

The present study was based on data from a market survey conducted in three Mexico’s cities (Mexico D.F., Monterrey, Guadalajara) between 27th March and 21st June 2011. The aim of the market survey was to have a complete picture of what people had for breakfast. Participants (3-55 years of age) were selected using a stratified sampling technique. A questionnaire was administered to the participants. It investigated socio-economic characteristics of the enrolled subjects, their breakfast habits (where they usually have breakfast, what they usually do while having breakfast), their attitudes towards breakfast and towards the types of food they choose for breakfast. They were also asked to fill a breakfast diary every day for one week in which they recorded what food they had for breakfast. Mothers filled the questionnaire and breakfast diaries for their children until 14 years of age.

We considered data from 120 male children (3-13 years of age). Socio-economic characteristics regarded child’s age, household size,mother’s age, working status and educational level. Mother’s attitude towards children’s breakfast was assessed using a 17 items questionnaire. Regarding breakfast diaries, we collected 437 breakfast records among 120 children. Every breakfast record reported what children had for breakfast, what they did while they were having breakfast, with whom they had breakfast and how long did it take.

Nutritional indications (NI)

The aim of our study is to investigate if children follow the NI for breakfast recommended by the “Estrategia contra el sobrepeso y la obesidad” (13). The project, in order to face with obesity epidemic, provides an educational program towards Mexican families recommending what type of food children should take in different eating occasions (breakfast, lunch, dinner and snacks). The NI are based on “el Plato del Bien Comer”: it shows the classification of food groups (fruits and vegetables, grains and tubers, legumes and animal source food) and in what proportion should take them, considering the specific features of Mexican
population (it is established from the official Mexican norm NOM 043-SSA2-2005 (13)).

Regarding breakfast, the NI provided by the “Estrategia contra el sobrepeso y la obesidad” recommends that children should take one food from every food group (fruits and vegetables, grains and tubers, legumes and animal source food). In order to investigate if children follow these NI, we classify food reported in breakfast records into the three recommended food groups using the Sistema Mexicano de Alimentos Equivalentes (14). To classify all the food children have for breakfast, we consider a further food group (not suggested from the NI) including fats and sweets.

Beverages  are  classified  separately from food. We classify beverages using the “Recomendaciones sobre el consumo de bebidas para la población mexicana” (15): the first level includes water, the second one is represented by skim or low fat (1%) milk and sugar free soy beverages, the third consists of coffee and tea which are not recommended for children due to caffeine. The fourth level includes non-caloric beverages containing artificial  sweeteners,  while  beverages
corresponding to the fifth level provide a high caloric intake but do not contribute to better health status (e.g. fruit juices, whole milk, alcoholic and sports drinks). Finally, the sixth level is represented by beverages that are high in sugar but provide low nutrient intake (soft drinks and other beverages high in sugar such as flavored waters, sweetened coffee and tea).

The classification is inversely proportional to the suggested consumption: from the less recommended (Level 6, which should be drink rarely) to the most recommended (Level 1: water, which should be the first source of hydration).

Compliance with Nutritional Indications (NI)

The analysis of compliance with NI was conducted both on breakfast records and on individual basis. For the analysis on individual basis, we considered compliant children when they follow NI at least once a week. Following NI means that breakfast composition includes one food from each of the three recommended food groups (3/3 NI). Not following NI means that breakfast composition:

• includes food from only two or one of the recommended food groups (2/3 NI, 1/3 NI)
• includes food from only the fats and sweets group (which is not recommended from the NI) and not from the three recommended food groups
• in addition to the recommended food groups, includes food from also the fats and sweets group (3/3 NI + fats and sweets, 2/3 NI + fats and sweets, 1/3 NI + fats and sweets).

Statistical Analysis

Descriptive data analysis of the compliance with NI has been performed and reported using percentages (absolute numbers). The 95% confidence intervals (C.I.) were obtained by bootstrap method (1,000 sample replications).

Basic exploratory data analysis has been performed and reported using percentages (absolute numbers), and Chi-square is used to test variations across compliance with NI groups. Analyses were performed using the R System.

RESULTS

Table 1 shows that only 26.66% (26.56; 27.07 95% C.I.) of children followed NI (3/3 NI) at least once a week (compliant children), corresponding to 7.35% (7.30; 7.42 95% C.I.) of the breakfast records. Nobody followed NI throughout the week, and most of compliant children followed NI only once a week (Figure 1).

The majority of breakfast records didn’t follow NI because breakfast composition included food from only two (2/3 NI) of the recommended food groups (44.41%, 44.40; 44.63 95% C.I.) or one (1/3 NI) of the recommended food groups (31.88%, 31.71; 31.92 95% C.I.). When only two food groups were included in breakfast composition, the less represented food and vegetables (1.08%, 1.04; 1.09 95% C.I.).

When only two food groups were included in breakfast composition, the less represented food groups combination was legumes and animal source food + fruits and vegetables (1.08%, 1.07; 1.12 95% C.I.). When breakfast composition included only one of the recommended food groups, the less represented food group was fruits and vegetables (1.08%, 1.04; 1.09 95% C.I.).

Regarding the classification of beverages consumption, the most represented were: Level 5 (58.44%, 58.31; 58.53 95% C.I.), this is because children took whole milk more often than skim or low fat (1%) milk (Level 2), and Level 6 (16.07%, 15.99;  16.16  95%  C.I.), because of the consumption of soft drinks and atole.Table 2 and Table 3 show respectively  socio-economic characteristics of children and their mother’s attitude towards breakfast: there were no significant differences between compliant and noncompliant children.

Table 4 shows the characteristics of breakfast records which followed and didn’t follow NI: children who had breakfast with family members are more likely to follow NI than children who had breakfast alone or with others (p-value 0.007).

TABLE 1. Compliance with NI and beverages consumption analyzed both on breakfast records and on children.



TABLE 2. Socio-economical characteristics of children and their mothers according to children’s compliance with NI. Data are percentages (absolute number).



FIGURE 1. Number of days in which children follow NI.



TABLE 3. Mother’s attitude towards breakfast according to children’s compliance with NI.


DISCUSSION
 
This analysis of what children had for breakfast was conducted on a sample of 120 male Mexican children and aimed to investigate if children meet the NI for breakfast provided by the “Estrategia contra el sobrepeso en la obesidad”. Only 32 children followed NI at least once a week. Similar results were obtained from other studies (16, 17) demonstrating that children and adolescents did not follow the nutritional indication for breakfast. In addition to breakfast, other studies (18, 19) evaluated if children meet daily recommended food groups intake (referring not only to breakfast consumption), showing a poor compliance. Despite the fact that we did not consider the nutrient intake but only the food group consumption and little differences in the recommendation used for the analysis of compliance, these studies, consistently with ours, reveal a low intake of fruits and vegetables compared to other food groups.

TABLE 4. Characteristics of breakfast records according to compliance with NI.



Another study (20) evaluates the impact of  school action program of the “Estrategia contra el sobrepeso en la obesidad” (for the 2011-2012 academic year)  on  eating  pattern of  Mexican  children, especially on school lunch. Consistently  with  our results,  it  demonstrated that the majority of lunch packages  of  primary schoolchildren do not follow national  recommendation. Additionally, the amount of lunch packs not following guidelines further increase when the recommendations include  water.  Also  in our study, the analysis of beverages  consumption shows a low intake of water (Level 1). We found a high intake of whole milk (Level 5, which is recommended for children under 2 years of age or for children who live in geographical area with a high prevalence of malnutrition) and of beverages high in sugar and with low nutritional value, especially soft drinks (Level 6). Our findings are consistent with the results of other studies on Mexican children’s beverages consumption (21, 22), showing a high intake of caloric beverages (especially whole milk and soft drinks) and on US children (23) (particularly referring to a higher consumption of whole milk compared to skim ones).
 
Differently from other studies that evaluate if children meet breakfast guidelines, we found out no significant association with socio-economic characteristics and mother’s attitude towards breakfast. Thus probably because most of compliant children meet NI only once a week and in any case nobody meet NI throughout the week,consequently there is no significant difference between compliant and noncompliant children by both socio-economic characteristics and mother’s attitude towards breakfast. Particularly the assessment of beliefs on breakfast showed how mothers’ attitude of compliant and noncompliant children were similar to each other and how they both not were fully aware on the importance of breakfast: despite they both thought that breakfast is the most important meal of the day, they did not express complete agreement regard the fact that children should have a balanced breakfast which helps to make them ready for the day and to do all their physical and mental activities.

Regarding breakfast records’ characteristics, we showed that children are more likely to meet NI when they have breakfast with family members, consistently with other studies which demonstrated that children who have meals with parents present significant better dietary habits (24).

CONClUSIONS

Our study investigated if children meet NI for breakfast provided by the “Estrategia contra el sobrepeso en la obesidad”. We found out that only 32 children meet NI at least once a week and most of compliant children follow NI only once a week. Additionally, we showed a low intake of fruit and vegetables and water and a high intake of caloric beverages (whole milk and soft drinks). Further studies are needed to evaluate the longterm impact of the program on Mexican children’s eating patterns.

SOURCE Of FUNDING

The work has been partially supported by an unrestricted grant from the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs under the programs “Programmi di alta rilevanza scientifica e tecnologica” Italia-Messico and Italia-Argentina, and from Prochild ONLUS (Italy).

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Eating patterns in Mexico and obesity in children:Results from the NutriRun project

Giulia Lorenzoni, Danila Azzolina, Claudia Elena Gafare, Dario Gregori, Eric Lobjeois

Unit of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Public Health, Department of Cardiac, Thoracic and Vascular Sciences, University of Padova, Italy. Department of Nutrition, University of Buenos Aires and Food and Diet Therapy Service, Acute General Hospital Juan A. Fernàndez, Buenos Aires, Argentina. LACE Consulting Group, Mexico City, Mexico.

SUMMARY:  This study aims to compare obesity rates, physical activity levels and compliance with Nutritional Indications (NI), provided by the Estrategia contra el sobrepeso y la obesidad, between three consecutive years (2011, 2012, 2013) in children enrolled in the NutriRun project. Data were collected during the race Carrera Kinder Generación en Movimiento held in Mexico City in 2011, 2012 and 2013. A medical-dietetic questionnaire was administered to parents, investigating what kind of food their children usually had for breakfast, lunch and dinner, physical activity levels and family medical history. Children were weighed and measured and BMI was calculated. In order to evaluate compliance with NI, food reported in the medical-dietetic questionnaire for breakfast and dinner was classified in four main food groups and in other four main food categories for lunch, according to NI. The analysis of overweight/obesity in 2011, 2012 and 2013 revealed a significant reduction (p-value 0.001) of children overweight/obese and an increase of normal weight ones. However, in all the three considered years, they were found to not follow NI because of a poor consumption of fruits and vegetables and of salad. Therefore, further health care policies promoting fruits and vegetables consumption among Mexican families are needed.

Key words: Children, Mexico, meals, nutritional indications, NutriRun project.

RESUMEN. El modelo de alimentación en Mexico y la obesidad en los niños. Resultados del proyecto NutriRun. Este estudio tiene como objetivo comparar las tasas de obesidad, los niveles de actividad física y el cumplimiento de las Indicaciones Nutricionales (IN), proporcionada por la Estrategia contra el sobrepeso y la obesidad, entre los tres años consecutivos (2011, 2012, 2013) en los niños que participaron en el proyecto NutriRun. Los datos fueron recolectados durante la carrera Kinder Generación en Movimiento, celebrada en la Ciudad de México en 2011, 2012 y 2013. Un cuestionario médico-dietético se administró a los padres, investigando qué tipo de alimentos por lo general tenían sus hijos para el desayuno, el almuerzo y la cena, los niveles de actividad física y el historial médico de la familia. Los niños fueron pesados y medidos y se calculó el IMC. Con el fin de evaluar el cumplimiento de las NI, la comida reportada en el cuestionario médico-dietético se clasificó, para el desayuno y la cena, en cuatro grupos de alimentos principales y en otros cuatro principales categorías de alimentos para el almuerzo, de acuerdo con las NI. El análisis de las tendencias de sobrepeso/obesidad en 2011, 2012 y 2013 demostró una reducción significativa (p-valor de 0,001) de los niños obesos/sobrepeso y un aumento de peso normal. Sin embargo, en los tres años considerados, se encontró que los niños no siguen las IN, debido a un pobre consumo de frutas y verduras y de la ensalada. Por lo tanto se necesitan nuevas políticas de atención a la salud que promuevan el consumo de frutas y verduras entre las familias mexicanas.

Palabras clave: Niños, México, comidas, indicaciones nutricionales, proyecto NutriRun.

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, several health policies have been carried out, at both international and national levels, in order to face with obesity epidemic, especially among children. Obesity in children represents a severe health burden, this is because it could lead to early metabolic (increased insulin resistance) (1) and cardiovascular (increased of intima-media thickness and of blood pressure) (2) impairments, resulting in high risk of developing cardiovascular (hypertension, coronary heart disease, stroke) (2) and metabolic (type 2 diabetes) (1) diseases in adulthood. Mexico is reported to be one of the world’s countries with the highest obesity rate. Among children, the ENSANUT survey (3) shows that 37% of kids were overweight or obese in 2012. The dramatic high prevalence of obesity is mostly related to sedentary behaviours and unhealthy food habits. It has been demonstrated that Mexican schoolchildren report a low consumption of fruit and vegetables and a high consumption of soft drinks and food (snacks particularly) high in fat (4). Additionally, recent studies on Mexican children beverages consumption have shown great consumption of high caloric beverages (e.g.soft drinks and whole milk) (5), demonstrating that beverages intake among Mexicans constitutes the daily main caloric source (6). Regarding physical activity, a longitudinal study following a cohort of Mexican children from kindergarten to primary school has demonstrated an increase of sedentary behaviours corresponding to the start of the school (7). Low levels of physical activities and high consumption of food and beverages high in fats and sugars contribute to obesity epidemic among Mexican children. Given these concerning data, also Mexican government is working to implement public health policies promoting healthy lifestyles and nutrition in order to improve obesity burden. The Estrategia contra el sobrepeso y la obesidad (8) is a program (started on 2010-2011 academic year) that aims to promote physical activity and healthy nutrition
among schoolchildren. In order to implement the project, educational interventions are carried out also towards families to promote healthy habits outside school. Vargas et al (9) have evaluated the impact of this strategy on children dietary patterns, demonstrating that schoolchildren lunch packs don’t follow Nutritional Indications (NI) provided by the Estrategia contra el sobrepeso y la obesidad (8) and that the amount of inadequate lunch packs increases dramatically when water is included in the NI. However, to our knowledge, no studies evaluate the impact of the strategy on trends of physical activities and dietary habits (in terms of compliance with NI) in the years after the start of this program.

The aim of our study is to compare obesity rates, physical activity levels and compliance with NI (at breakfast, lunch and dinner) between three consecutive years (2011, 2012 and 2013) in children participating to a yearly sporting event held in Mexico City: the Carrera Kinder Generación en Movimiento.

MATERIALS AND METhODS

The NutriRun is an International study started on 2011 aimed to assess behaviours and eating habits of families in order to evaluate the impact of lifestyle choices on children’s health status, particularly on the risk of developing nutrition-related diseases, such as obesity and diabetes. Data were collected during the race Carrera Kinder Generación en Movimiento. This race was held every April from 2011 to 2013 in Mexico City. This initiative intended to promote family integration and physical activity, as a healthy and fun activity, at early age among Mexican families. Children and one of their parents run together on one of the three proposed distances (1, 2 and 4 kilometers) depending on children’s age. It was open to children over 5 years and, after the race, participants, as well as spectators (or non-participants), were invited to participate, voluntarily, to different laboratories promoting healthy lifestyles. One of these activities consisted
on nutritional consultation: it took about 15-20 minutes and parents, with their children, were also asked to answer a medical-dietetic questionnaire.Finally, certified nutritionists took children’s anthropometric measurements.

Medical-dietetic questionnaire
 
The medical-dietetic questionnaire consisted of three main parts. The first was represented by questions on children and family’s medical history. It was evaluated if the child suffered from chronic diseases and if the kid recently suffered from gastrointestinal diseases (e.g. nausea, vomiting, diarrhea). Additionally, it was assessed if family members suffered from chronic disease, especially from metabolic ones (e.g. diabetes and dyslpidemia). The second part regarded the assessment of children’s eating habits. Parents were asked on their son/daughter number of meals per day, favourite and hated foods, food allergies. They were also asked to report what the child usually had for breakfast, lunch, dinner and snacks. Finally, children’s physical activity was evaluated (parents were asked if their children did physical activity, what type, how often).

Anthropometric measurements

Anthropometric measurements (height and weight) were carried out by certified nutritionists.The scale used to weight the children was TANITA BC-533. The scale was placed on a flat, horizontal, solid surface. Children were placed in a central and symmetrical position on the scale platform with the palms of hands extended laterally. They were told to stay still for a moment to avoid oscillations in the weight reading. The stadiometer used to measure children’s height was a floor based one, SECA model 213. It was placed on a flat, horizontal, solid surface, forming a 90º angle with the floor surface. It was checked that the midline of the child body matched the midline of the stadiometer. The arms were hanging freely and naturally throughout the body. The nutritionist being in front of children, placed both hands on the lower border of the mandible, exerting a minimum traction upward, as wanted to stretch the neck to guide the head to the Frankfort plane. Then the nutritionist lowered the squad of the stadiometer until it rested on the head of the children and performed the reading.Anthropometric measures were performed with children wearing light clothes and without shoes.Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated as weight (kg) divided by height (m) squared. Children were considered to be overweight/obese with a BMI ≥85th and underweight with a BMI <5th, according to CDC growth standards (10).

Compliance with Nutritional Indications (NI)

The aim of our study was to assess trends of Mexican children’s food patterns (in terms of compliance with NI) at breakfast, lunch and dinner in three consecutive years (2011, 2012 and 2013). We considered the NI provided by the Estrategia contra el sobrepeso y la obesidad (8). This program was started on 2010-2011 academic year and aimed to promote healthy eating habits and lifestyles towards Mexican families in order to face with obesity epidemic among Mexican population. These NI are based on El Plato del Bien Comer (established from the official Mexican norm NOM 043-SSA2-2005 (11)). It provides a graphical representation of the three main food groups (grains and tubers, animal source food and legumes, fruits and vegetables) and recommends in what proportion should take them.

The Estrategia contra el sobrepeso y la obesidad (8) suggests that children, at breakfast and dinner, should take one food from every food group. Regarding lunch, the program suggests that children should take soup (made of vegetables or legumes or grains), salad and a main dish (consisting on a stew made of vegetables or grains or animal source food with beans or rice). In order to evaluate compliance with NI (at breakfast and dinner) from 2011 to 2013, food reported in the questionnaires was classified in the three main food groups (grains and tubers, animal source food and legumes, fruit and vegetables).A further food group (represented by fats and sweets) was considered in order to classify all foods reported in the questionnaires. Children were considered compliant with NI if they had one food from every recommended food group, while they were considered not compliant if they had only two or one food from the recommended food groups or if they combined food from the suggested food groups with fats and sweets (which were not recommended from the program).

Regarding lunch, food was classified in three main categories (corresponding to those recommended from the NI): soup, salad and main dish. Also for lunch, fats and sweets group was included to provide a complete classification of food reported in the questionnaires. Similarly to breakfast and dinner, children were considered compliant with NI if they had all the three food categories, while they were considered not compliant if they had only two or one food categories or if they ate food from the fats and sweets group.

Statistical analyses

Descriptive  statistics  was  reported  using percentages (absolute numbers) for categorical  variables and median (I and III quartiles) for continuous ones.

Kruskal-Wallis test (a non-parametric test, similar to parametric One Way ANOVA test for independent samples) has been calculated for continuous variables. Pearson chi-square test was performed for categorical variables. Statistical analyses were performed using R system (12) and hmisc package (13).


RESULTS

Children’s  characteristics,  by  year  of participation to Carrera Kinder Generación en Movimiento, are provided in Table 1. The median age of children in the three years is 8 years old and they are equally distributed among boys and girls. Regarding BMI assessment, we found out significant differences (p-value <0.001) from 2011 to 2013: the amount of underweight and overweight/obese children decreased, while the number of normal weight children increased (58% in 2011, 72% in 2012 and 74% in 2013). No significant differences were reported concerning eating habits (for both number of meals per day and snacking). Referring to physical activity, despite the fact that most of children did it (that’s probably related to the fact that data were collected during a sporting event and participants probably were more likely to be sporty), the amount of children who did physical activity significantly decreased (p-value <0.001) from 2011 to 2013 (80% in 2011, 71% in 2012 and 71% in 2013).

TABLE 1. Sample characteristics according to Nutrirun year. Data are percentages (absolute number) for categorical variables and median [I and III quartiles] for continuous variables.


The analysis of compliance with NI at breakfast (Table 2) showed that only a few children were compliant and the poor compliance is related to a low consumption of fruit and vegetables. The majority of children had only two re-commended foods (40% in 2011, 44% in 2012 and 46% in 2013 and most of them ate grains/tubers combined with animal source food) or one recommended food (21% in 2011, 22% in 2012, 20% in 2013 and most of them ate only animal source food). The high consumption of animal source food, especially combined with grains and tubers, was related to the fact that the majority of children drunk milk and ate cereal at breakfast but did not eat fruits and vegetables. Comparing the three years we found out no significant differences except to children who were compliant (p-value 0.048): the amount of children who were compliant was lower in 2012 compared to the other two years.

TABLE 2. Breakfast consumption according to Nutrirun year. Data are percentages (absolute number).



Regarding lunch, we found out that most of children ate food from two recommended food categories, followed by those who were compliant and finally by children who ate food from only a food category (the amount of children who combined the recommended food categories with fats and sweets was negligible).Analysing compliance with NI at lunch, we reported significant  differences between the three years among compliant children (p-value 0.031) and among children who ate two foods from the suggested food categories (p-value 0.026).

TABLE 3. Lunch consumption according to Nutrirun year. Data are percentages (absolute number)



TABLE 4. Dinner consumption according to Nutrirun year. Data are percentages (absolute number).



Particularly  we  showed that, from 2011 to 2013, the amount of compliant children decreased (25% in 2011, 20% in 2012 and 17% in 2013), while the number of children who ate only two foods from the recommended food categories increased (42% in 2011, 47% in 2012 and 53% in 2013). Among these children, most of them ate only the main dish and the soup, without the salad. Among children who had only one food from the three suggested food  categories,  they ate most often the main dish or the soup. Also for lunch most of children did not follow NI and, as for breakfast, this is related to a low consumption of vegetables (salad in this case).

Similarly to breakfast, also at dinner, only a few children were compliant with NI (5% in 2011, 3% in 2012 and 4% in 2013). About a half of children (50% in 2011, 49% in 2012 and 56% in 2013) had only two food from the three recommended food groups (and most of them ate animal source food/legumes  combined
with  grains/tubers), followed by those (23% in 2011, 26% in 2012 and 20% in 2013) who ate food from only one food group, especially grains/tubers or animal source  food/legumes. Consistently  with  the other two meal occasions, at dinner most of children were not compliant with NI due to a poor fruits and vegetables consumption.

DISCUSSION

The aim of our study was to compare, between three consecutive years (2011, 2012 and 2013), trends of overweight/obesity rates, physical activity and food habits (in terms of compliance with NI provided by Estrategia contra el sobrepeso y la obesidad (8)) among Mexican children. Rates of overweight/obese children were lower in all the three years compared to those reported for Mexican children general population from the 2012 ENSANUT survey (3). Analysing physical activity levels, we found out that the amount of children who did physical activity was higher than those reported by the ENSANUT study (3).

These observations could be related to the fact that the sample of children considered in this study was enrolled during a sporting event (Carrera Kinder Generación en Movimiento) and participants probably were more likely to lead an active life with resulting lower levels of overweight/obesity compared to general population. Additionally, probably participants, due to the nature of the event in which they were enrolled (a sporting one), were more likely to declare higher levels of physical activity compared to the amount of weekly physical activity they really did.

Regarding the analysis of overweight/obesity towards 2011, 2012 and 2013, we demonstrated a significant reduction of children overweight/obese and an increase of normal weight children. However, despite the fact that the enrolled children showed: a significant reduction of overweight/obesity rates among the three considered years, higher levels of physical activity and lower prevalence of overweight/obesity compared with Mexican children general population, they did not follow NI because of a low consumption of fruits and vegetables. Dramatically, these findings are similar to those reported from 1996-1997 survey on Mexican children dietary patterns, demonstrating a lower consumption of fruit and vegetables than those recommended (4).

Our results are consistent also with those reported from Vargas and colleagues (9), evaluating the short term impact of the Estrategia contra el sobrepeso y la obesidad on lunch packs of Mexican schoolchildren, they found out that almost all lunch packs did not meet NI. The comparison of our findings with those of international studies showed similar results, despite difficulties related to a great heterogeneity of methods employed to assess dietary patterns (food consumption expressed as servings or weight, usage of different classification systems, depending on national guidelines). As in our study, the analyses of NHA-
NES data (2007-2010) on U.S. children’s food patterns, showed that 60% and 93% of children reported lower consumption of fruits and vegetables, respectively, than those recommended from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) (14). Additionally, specifically analysing fruit and vegetables consumption from 2003 to 2010 in children enrolled in NHANES survey, Kim and colleagues (15) showed an increase of whole fruit consumption but no changes in vegetables intake and reported that no children, except to those from 2 to 5 years old, were compliant with recommendations for fruits and vegetable of the Healthy People 2020 program.

The low consumption of fruits and vegetables is concerning because several studies (16-21) provided evidence of better health status thanks to fruits and vegetables intake (22). First of all, they are a source of many nutrients (especially vitamins, minerals and antioxidants). It has also been demonstrated that fruits and vegetables consumption is associated to a reduced risk of cancer (16, 20) and of cardiovascular diseases (17, 19). Additionally, given the high content of water and fibres promoting satiety, fruits and vegetables are demonstrated to be effective in determining weight loss and preventing obesity (18, 21). Therefore, it’s crucial to implement new public health policies among Mexican families that promote especially fruits and vegetables consumption in order to improve children’s dietary patterns.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the fact that enrolled children showed a reduction of overweight/obesity rates in the three consecutive years and higher levels of physical activity than those of Mexican children general population, they did not follow NI provided by the Estrategia contra el sobrepeso y la obesidad because of a poor consumption
of fruit and vegetables. Further health care policies promoting food and vegetables intake are needed given the strictly association between the consumption of these food types and better health status.

SOURCE OF FUNDING

The work has been partially supported by an unrestricted grant from the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs under the programs “Programmi di alta rilevanza scientifica e tecnologica” Italia-Messico and Italia-Argentina, and from Prochild ONLUS (Italy).

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