<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0001-6365</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Acta Odontológica Venezolana]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Acta odontol. venez]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0001-6365</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Facultad de Odontología -UCV]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0001-63652010000100017</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Asociación potencial entre enterobacterias presentes en periodontitis y enfermedades sistémicas]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Potential association between enterobacteriaceas present in periodontitis and systemic diseases]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ardila Medina]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Carlos Martín]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad de Antioquia Sociedad Colombiana de Periodoncia-Regional Antioquia ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>03</month>
<year>2010</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>03</month>
<year>2010</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>48</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<fpage>108</fpage>
<lpage>113</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://ve.scielo.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0001-63652010000100017&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://ve.scielo.org/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0001-63652010000100017&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://ve.scielo.org/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0001-63652010000100017&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[La periodontitis crónica es una enfermedad infecciosa asociada a microorganismos gram-negativos anaerobios. Esta entidad de naturaleza crónica y de alta prevalencia en la población, ha sido relacionada con un riesgo aumentado a infarto agudo del miocardio, accidente cerebrovascular, bajo peso al nacer y parto pretérmino. Estudios microbiológicos en pacientes con periodontitis en los cuales se ha detectado la presencia de enterobacterias, muestran gran resistencia a la terapia antimicrobiana, cuadro clínico que se complica debido a la alta prevalencia de sobreinfección por estos microorganismos, afectando la evolución sistémica de los pacientes y la respuesta a la terapia periodontal. Así mismo, el lipopolisacárido presente en su pared, ha demostrado estimular la activación celular y la producción de citoquinas proinflamatorias que podrían aumentar el riesgo de enfermedades sistémicas en estos pacientes. El objetivo de este artículo es proporcionar fundamentos que permitan de alguna manera tomar medidas para enfrentar tal problemática]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[The chronic periodontitis is an infectious disease associated to anaerobic gram negative microorganisms. This entity of chronic nature and high prevalence in the population has been associated with increased risk to acute infarct of the myocardium, stroke, low birth weight and preterm infants. Microbiological studies in patients with periodontitis harboring enterobacterias has been detected, show resistant to antimicrobial therapy, clinical situation that is complicated by the high prevalence of overinfection by these microorganisms, affecting the systemic evolution of the patients and response to periodontal therapy. Likewise, the lipopolysaccharide present in its wall, has been shown to stimulate cell activation and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which might increase the likelihood of systemic diseases in these patients. The aim of this article is to provide foundation to somehow take measures to address this problem]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[periodontitis]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[microbiología]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[enterobacterias]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[patógenos]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[periodontitis]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[microbiology]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[enterobacteriaceae]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[pathogens]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[ <p align="center" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0"><b> <span lang="ES-CO"><font face="Verdana" size="3">Asociación potencial entre  enterobacterias presentes en periodontitis y enfermedades sistémicas</font></span></b></p>     <p style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="center"><b> <font size="2" face="Verdana">Carlos Martín Ardila Medina</font></b></p>     <p style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana">Profesor Asistente Universidad  de Antioquia. Presidente Sociedad Colombiana de Periodoncia-Regional Antioquia.  Candidato a PhD en Epidemiología.</font></p>     <p style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana">Carrera 47 No. 20 sur 46  Envigado Antioquia TELF.: 57(4) 3348122. EMAIL: <span style="text-decoration: none"> <a href="mailto:cmartin@odontologia.udea.edu.co">cmartin@odontologia.udea.edu.co</a></span> </font> </p>     <p style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"><b> <font size="2" face="Verdana"> <span lang="ES-CO">Resumen</span></font></b></p>     <p style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana"> <span lang="ES-CO">La periodontitis  crónica es una enfermedad infecciosa asociada a microorganismos gram-negativos  anaerobios. Esta entidad de naturaleza crónica y de alta prevalencia en la  población, ha sido relacionada con un riesgo aumentado a infarto agudo del  miocardio, accidente cerebrovascular, bajo peso al nacer y parto pretérmino.  Estudios microbiológicos en pacientes con periodontitis en los cuales se ha  detectado la presencia de enterobacterias, muestran gran resistencia a la  terapia antimicrobiana, cuadro clínico que se complica debido a la alta  prevalencia de sobreinfección por estos microorganismos, afectando la evolución  sistémica de los pacientes y la respuesta a la terapia periodontal. Así mismo,  el lipopolisacárido presente en su pared, ha demostrado estimular la activación  celular y la producción de citoquinas proinflamatorias que podrían aumentar el  riesgo de enfermedades sistémicas en estos pacientes. El objetivo de este  artículo es proporcionar fundamentos que permitan de alguna manera tomar medidas  para enfrentar tal problemática.</span></font></p>     <p style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana"><b>Palabras clave</b>:  periodontitis, microbiología, enterobacterias, patógenos</font></p>     <p style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="center"><b> <span lang="EN-US"><font face="Verdana" size="2">Potential association between  enterobacteriaceas present in periodontitis and systemic diseases</font></span></b></p>     <p style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"><b> <font size="2" face="Verdana"> <span lang="EN-US">Summary</span></font></b></p>     <p style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana"> <span lang="EN-US">The chronic  periodontitis is an infectious disease associated to anaerobic gram negative  microorganisms. This entity of chronic nature and high prevalence in the  population has been associated with increased risk to acute infarct of the  myocardium, stroke, low birth weight and preterm infants. Microbiological  studies in patients with periodontitis harboring enterobacterias has been  detected, show resistant to antimicrobial therapy, clinical situation that is  complicated by the high prevalence of overinfection by these microorganisms,  affecting the systemic evolution of the patients and response to periodontal  therapy. Likewise, the lipopolysaccharide present in its wall, has been shown to  stimulate cell activation and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines,  which might increase the likelihood of systemic diseases in these patients. The  aim of this article is to provide foundation to somehow take measures to address  this problem.</span></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana"><b> <span lang="EN-US">Key words</span></b><span lang="EN-US">:  periodontitis, microbiology, enterobacteriaceae, pathogens</span></font></p>     <p style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana"> <span lang="ES-VE"><b>Recibido para  arbitraje:</b> 12/08/2008 <b> Aceptado para publicación:</b> 25/11/2008</span></font></p>     <p style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana"> <span lang="ES-CO" style="font-weight: 700"> Introducción</span></font></p>     <p style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font face="Verdana" size="2"> <span lang="ES-CO">La periodontitis  crónica es una enfermedad infecciosa y se ha documentado extensamente el papel  de la microflora subgingival&nbsp; en su etiología. <sup>1, 2</sup> Diferentes  estudios han demostrado similitudes en los periodontopatógenos y han encontrado  que en los pacientes con periodontitis crónica, están presentes y en forma  conjunta, la mayoría de los siguientes microorganismos: <i>Porphyromona  gingivalis, Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, Tannerella forsythensis</i>, <i>Eikenella corrodens, Campylobacter&nbsp; rectus, Peptoestreptococo micros,  Treponema denticola y la Prevotella intermedius</i>.<sup> 3,4</sup> Sin embargo,  algunas investigaciones han demostrado que la frecuencia relativa de cada  especia bacteriana varía entre poblaciones de diferentes orígenes geográficos,  concluyendo que la prevalencia de patógenos periodontales específicos cambia  entre individuos del mismo ambiente y entre distintas etnias y países.<sup>5-10</sup>  &nbsp;Además de los ya mencionados, en los ambientes subgingivales de algunos  pacientes con periodontitis crónica, se han encontrado otros microorganismos  tales como las enterobacterias. No obstante, la frecuencia de este fenómeno  también es diversa entre diferentes regiones del mundo.</span><sup><span lang="ES-CO">6,  11-16</span></sup></font></p>     <p style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana"> <span lang="ES-CO">Algunas  investigaciones han reportado que no todos los pacientes, ni los sitios del  diente responden uniforme y favorablemente a la terapia mecánica convencional, y  que esto es explicado en parte por la composición microbiana de la placa  subgingival. Slots,<sup> 11</sup> Listgarten <sup>17</sup> &nbsp;y Handal, <sup>18 </sup>&nbsp;hallaron en diferentes estudios, que en pacientes tratados con terapia  mecánica tradicional no había mejoría en aquellas bolsas periodontales que  presentaban enterobacterias.</span></font></p>     <p style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font face="Verdana" size="2"> <span lang="ES-CO">En algunas  regiones del mundo se necesitan protocolos adecuados para el tratamiento de la  periodontitis crónica, debido a que la presencia de enterobacterias en placa  subgingival le proporciona características microbiológicas particulares a tales  poblaciones.<sup>5</sup>&nbsp; Por consiguiente, es importante buscar terapéuticas  basadas en las particularidades que tiene la enfermedad en algunos países,  generando nuevo conocimiento en este sentido que contribuya al desarrollo de  protocolos específicos.<b>&nbsp; </b>Además, el tratamiento efectivo de la  periodontitis crónica tiene implicaciones en la salud pública debido a que esta  enfermedad genera discapacidad y deterioro de la calidad de vida, no solo porque  produce movilidad y pérdida de los dientes, sino también por su asociación con  problemas sistémicos como ateroesclerosis, enfermedad coronaria y enfermedades  respiratorias, complicaciones obstétricas como parto pretérmino y&nbsp; bajo peso al  nacer.</span><sup> <span lang="ES-CO"> 19, 20</span></sup></font></p>     <p style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana"> <span lang="ES-CO">El objetivo de  este artículo es dilucidar el papel de las enterobacterias en la etiología&nbsp; de  la periodontitis crónica y sus implicaciones sistémicas, de tal manera que  proporcione información pertinente para la adecuación de pautas de tratamiento,  que permitan&nbsp; incorporar guías de atención integral al paciente, basadas en la  evidencia, las cuales infortunadamente no posee el actual esquema de prestación  de servicios de salud en algunos países.</span></font></p>     <p style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana"> <span lang="ES-CO" style="font-weight: 700"> Etiopatogenia</span></font></p>     <p style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana"> <span lang="ES-CO">Se ha sugerido  que la presencia de bacterias entéricas podría dificultar el cuadro clínico de  los pacientes con periodontitis, las cuales podrían llevar a complicaciones  sistémicas al entrar en el torrente sanguíneo, induciendo septicemias en  pacientes inmunosuprimidos. Sin embargo, el mayor impacto clínico podría estar  relacionado con su capacidad de activar monocitos por parte de su potente LPS <sup>21</sup> y contribuir a su activación vía citoquinas.</span></font></p>     <p style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana"> <span lang="ES-MX">La exposición al  LPS de dichas bacterias&nbsp; es probablemente el mayor estímulo al sistema inmune&nbsp; y  uno de los más intensos. El LPS además de estar asociado con shock séptico,  produce exacerbación de procesos alérgicos, desviación de respuesta celular Th2  (anticuerpos)</span> </font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font face="Verdana" size="2"> <span lang="ES-MX">a fenotipo  inflamatorio Th1, con base en la inducción de citoquinas. Además, a nivel  celular el LPS y las lipoproteínas son iniciadores de mediadores inflamatorios,  activación celular, proliferación, inducción e inhibición de apoptosis</span>.<sup><span lang="ES-CO">  22</span></sup></font></p>     <p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font face="Verdana" size="2"> <span lang="ES-CO">La acción del LPS  de bacterias periodontopáticas difiere de la observada en bacterias entéricas y  esto puede ser explicado por las diferencias estructurales y bioquímicas de este  componente en las diferentes especies</span><span lang="ES-MX" style="font-family: Verdana">.</span><sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">  23</span></sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">  Cuando el LPS de una bacteria gram-negativa es liberado dentro del plasma es  opsonizado por una proteína ligadora específica (LBP) en el suero. La unión LPS-LBP  puede iniciar una significante activación celular dentro del plasma  especialmente en monocitos circulantes. El complejo LPS-LBP es reconocido por el  CD14 de estas células las cuales se encuentran asociadas con la superficie  celular.<sup> 24</sup> &nbsp;La unión de CD14 con el complejo LPS-LBP dispara la  asociación de las moléculas CD14 ocupadas con un receptor de señalización. </span><span lang="IT" style="font-family: Verdana">Esto  estimula al fagocito a sintetizar una serie de citoquinas como TNF, IL-1, IL-6,  IL-10, IL-12 e IL-15.<sup> </sup></span><sup> <span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">25</span></sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">  &nbsp;</span>El CD 14  transfiere el LPS a un receptor intramembranal para iniciar la traducción de  señal (Toll like receptor TLRs). <span lang="ES-MX" style="font-family: Verdana">La familia TLR  consiste de receptores expresados en las células involucradas en la respuesta  inmune innata como son el monocito, el macrófago, la célula dendrítica y el  polimorfonuclear, en la célula T y la célula B</span><span lang="DE" style="font-family: Verdana">.</span><sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">  26</span></sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana"> </span><span lang="ES-MX" style="font-family: Verdana">En  el humano el primer TLR caracterizado fue el TLR4 al cual se le ha atribuido el  reconocimiento del LPS</span><b><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">.</span></b><sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">  26</span></sup><span lang="ES-MX" style="font-family: Verdana">  Tapping y colaboradores </span><sup> <span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">27</span></sup><span lang="ES-MX" style="font-family: Verdana">  compararon las citoquinas proinflamatorias derivadas de la activación del TLR2  con la activación del TLR4 estimulados en ambos casos con LPS de la  enterobacterias <i>E. coli </i>y<i> S. minnesota, </i>mostrando que una vez  bloqueado el TLR4 se evidencia una disminución significativa en la producción de  citoquinas (TNF</span><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">alfa</span><span lang="ES-MX" style="font-family: Verdana">  e IL8) a diferencia de la producción en los casos en que fue bloqueado el TLR2.  Este estudio sugiere que el TLR4 es un receptor de señalización restringido a  los LPS derivados de la familia <i>Enterobacteriaceae</i></span><span lang="DE" style="font-family: Verdana">.</span><sup><span lang="ES-CO">  27</span></sup></font></p>     <p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font face="Verdana" size="2">Numerosos estudios han  comparado la producción de citoquinas por monocitos retados con LPS de <i>P  gingivalis,</i> con la producción de ellas por monocitos enfrentados con <i>E  coli,</i> mostrando resultados contradictorios. Mientras que Aspira <sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">28</span></sup>,  encontró que el LPS de <i>P gingivalis</i> tiene la misma habilidad para la  producción de citoquinas, Bainbridge y colaboradores <sup> <span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">29</span></sup>  reportaron que <i>P gingivalis</i> mostraba menor habilidad para la producción  de citoquinas. Ogawa y Uchida <sup> <span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">21</span></sup>  mostraron que el LPS de <i>P gingivalis</i> presentaba menor habilidad para la  producción de <span lang="ES-CR" style="font-family: Verdana"> IL-1beta </span>y TNF alfa pero una habilidad similar para la producción de IL 6.  Roberts y colaboradores <sup> <span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">30</span></sup>  compararon el efecto de los LPS de <i>E coli</i> y <i>P gingivalis</i> en su  capacidad de producción de <span lang="ES-CR" style="font-family: Verdana">IL-1beta </span>y TNF alfa encontrando  que ambos tipos de LPS activan las citoquinas. <span lang="ES-CO">De esta manera  las enterobacterias en placa subgingival de pacientes con periodontitis  aumentarían el riesgo de enfermedad cardiovascular, el bajo peso al nacer y el  parto pretérmino.<sup>19, 20</sup></span></font></p>     <p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana"> <span lang="ES-CO" style="font-weight: 700"> Epidemiología</span></font></p>     <p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font face="Verdana" size="2"> <span lang="ES-CO">La prevalencia de  las enterobacterias varía entre diferentes regiones del mundo.<sup> 8-15</sup>&nbsp;  En Suecia se reportó la presencia de entéricos en 34.9% de las muestras siendo  las especies más representativas <i>Enterobacter cloacae y Klebsiella oxytoca</i>.<sup>  31</sup>&nbsp; Similares resultados fueron encontrados, en adultos estadounidenses  con periodontitis avanzada.&nbsp; Allí, la presencia de enterobacterias especialmente <i>Enterobacter cloacae</i>, <i>Enterobacter agglomerans, Proteus mirabilis,  Klebsiella pneumoniae y Klebsiella oxytoca,</i> fue del 28%.<sup> 32</sup>&nbsp; En  estudios multicéntricos realizados en Colombia, Chile y España se reportaron  prevalencias del 36% y 17.6%&nbsp; en Colombia y Chile respectivamente, mientras que  en España no se encontraron entéricos. <sup>5, 14, 15 </sup>&nbsp;Las especies más  frecuentemente encontradas en el estudio realizado en Colombia fueron &nbsp;<i>Klebsiella  pneumoniae y &nbsp;Enterobacter cloacae.&nbsp; </i>Estos hallazgos confirman que los  microorganismos no residentes usualmente constituyen menos del 1% de la cantidad  total viable en una muestra subgingival. En una población Rumana con  periodontitis, se reportó la presencia de entéricos en el 61.1% de los  pacientes.<sup>3</sup>&nbsp; En una investigación realizada en Sudán se demostró la  presencia de enterobacterias en el 92% de los pacientes pero contrario a un  estudio en Noruega, en el cual ninguno de los pacientes fue positivo para estos  microorganismos.<sup>9</sup>&nbsp; En el Brasil se han observado prevalencias del  31.2% de entéricos en placa subgingival, encontradas principalmente en bolsas  periodontales profundas.<sup>33</sup>&nbsp; La frecuencia de enterobacterias en otros  países son: República Dominicana 67% <sup>11</sup> y China 57%.<sup>34</sup>&nbsp; Es  importante anotar que los estudios realizados en Colombia asocian la presencia  de entéricos a condiciones demográficas y características culturales del país.</span><sup><span lang="ES-CO">14,  15</span></sup></font></p>     <p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana"> <span lang="ES-CO" style="font-weight: 700"> Respuesta al tratamiento con antimicrobianos</span></font></p>     <p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font face="Verdana" size="2"> <span lang="ES-CO">Las  enterobacterias son habitantes usuales del tracto genitourinario y  gastrointestinal humano.<sup>35</sup>&nbsp; Ellas causan infecciones como bacteremias<sup>  36</sup>, endocarditis infecciosas<sup> 37</sup> e infecciones del tracto  urinario.<sup>35</sup> Se ha encontrado también que colonizan otra variedad de  sitios incluyendo la cavidad bucal.<sup>38</sup> Estos microorganismos se han  asociado con lesiones de la mucosa oral en pacientes inmunocomprometidos,<sup>  39</sup> infecciones endodónticas<sup> 40</sup> y periodontitis.</span><sup><span lang="ES-CO">3,  5, 8,11-17, 41</span></sup></font></p>     <p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font face="Verdana" size="2">Sobre las dos últimas décadas,  se ha reconocido que las enterobacterias presentan una resistencia antibacterial  incrementada a la mayoría de antibióticos usados actualmente.<sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">42</span></sup>&nbsp;  La penicilina es el agente antimicrobiano más frecuentemente utilizado. Debido a  su efectividad, toxicidad mínima y relativo bajo costo, se convierte en la  primera línea de elección en las infecciones odontogénicas.&nbsp; Las penicilinas  incluyen la G, la V y la amoxicilina. Las dos primeras son altamente activas  contra cocos Gram-positivos y la última presenta un espectro Gram-negativo  mejorado.&nbsp; Los inhibidores de la beta lactamasa, tales como el clavulanato, se  utilizan para extender el espectro de la penicilina contra los microorganismos  que producen tal proteína.</font></p>     <p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font face="Verdana" size="2">La resistencia bacteriana a  las penicilinas se ha convertido en un problema de gran significancia clínica  debido a su amplio uso durante muchos años.<sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">43</span></sup>&nbsp;  El desarrollo de resistencia de los entéricos a la beta lactamasa puede ser  mediada por alteraciones en la expresión o afinidades de ligamiento&nbsp; de la  penicilina a las proteínas.&nbsp; Además, ocasionalmente la resistencia ha sido  asociada con la producción de beta lactamasa.<sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">35</span></sup>  Es así como las enterobacterias<span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">  han mostrado resistencia a la amoxicilina y a la amoxicilina/clavulánico, en  estudios realizados en Estados Unidos, Noruega, Brasil, Suecia y Colombia.</span><sup><span lang="ES-CO">11,  13-15, 17, 18, 44</span></sup></font></p>     <p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font face="Verdana" size="2">Estudios de vieja data en  donde se aislaron enterobacterias mostraron que el 100% fueron susceptibles a la eritromicina.<sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">45,  46</span></sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana"> </span>&nbsp;Heintz <sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">47</span></sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana"> </span>encontró que más  del 90% eran susceptibles, mientras que Stern<sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">  48</span></sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana"> </span>halló que el  61.9% de los entéricos aislados eran susceptibles a este medicamento.  Investigaciones más recientes soportan el hallazgo de la disminución con el  tiempo de la susceptibilidad de las enterobacterias a la eritromicina.&nbsp; Sedgley<sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">  49</span></sup> y&nbsp;  Pinheiro <sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana"> 50</span></sup>,  encontraron 12 cepas de entéricos resistentes a la eritromicina, dos (16.6%)  susceptibles y ocho (66.6%) con un patrón intermedio. Estos estudios demostraron  que la concentración inhibitoria mínima (CIM) de la eritromicina, cuando se  evalúa frente a enterobacterias, ha incrementado con el paso de los años, lo  cual sugiere que estos microorganismos se han vuelto menos susceptibles a este  antibiótico.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font face="Verdana" size="2">La azitromicina es capaz de  lograr niveles sanguíneos más altos y más sostenidos que la eritromicina, sin  los efectos gástricos colaterales.<sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">51</span></sup>  Sin embargo, la azitromicina resultó ser menos efectiva contra los entéricos,  siendo susceptibles solamente el 14.2%. <sup> <span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">52</span></sup>  Además se ha reportado resistencia cruzada entre estos dos medicamentos.</font></p>     <p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font face="Verdana" size="2">Las tetraciclinas son  antibióticos de amplio espectro con actividad contra aeróbicos y anaeróbicos  Gram-positivos y microorganismos Gram-negativos.&nbsp; La doxiciclina es uno de los  derivados más activos de la tetraciclina, pero la resistencia bacteriana a  cualquier miembro de su clase usualmente resulta&nbsp; en resistencia cruzada a otras tetraciclinas.<sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">  50</span></sup>&nbsp; Dahlen <sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana"> 44</span></sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana"> </span>y Pinheiro <sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana"> 50</span></sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana"> </span>encontraron que  el 13. 8%&nbsp; y el 14.3% de las cepas de enterobacterias aisladas en sus  investigaciones, fueron resistentes a la tetraciclina. Por otra parte, los  estudios de Rams<sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">  41</span></sup> y Udo <sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana"> 42</span></sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana"> </span>han mostrado  porcentajes mas altos de resistencia a las enterobacterias (58% y 65.1%  respectivamente). Estos hallazgos han reducido la utilidad clínica de la tetraciclina.</font></p>     <p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font face="Verdana" size="2">El cloramfenicol es efectivo  contra la mayoría de aerobios y anaerobios,&nbsp; pero su alto potencial para  producir anemia aplástica usualmente conduce&nbsp; a seleccionar otro antibiótico más  seguro.<sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">53</span></sup>&nbsp;  Estudios in Vitro que han evaluado el cloramfenicol, han reportado resistencia a  cepas de entéricos entre el 20% y 26% .<sup><span lang="ES-CO">42</span></sup></font></p>     <p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font face="Verdana" size="2">La vancomicina es un  antibiótico activo contra bacterias Gram-positivas, sin embargo, debe emplearse  solo para tratar infecciones muy serias.&nbsp; La administración de este medicamento  es una alternativa efectiva, en pacientes alérgicos a la penicilina, para el  tratamiento de endocarditis causada por&nbsp; estreptococo viridans y  enterobacterias.&nbsp; Algunos estudios han mostrado alta susceptibilidad de las  entéricas a la vancomicina. <sup> <span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">41, 44</span></sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana"> </span>No obstante,  ciertas investigaciones han dilucidado la emergencia de enterobacterias  resistentes a la vancomicina, especialmente entre <i>E. faecium </i>y <i>E.  faecalis</i>.<sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">54</span></sup>&nbsp;  Esta resistencia a la vancomicina&nbsp; ha resultado a partir de patógenos  nosocomiales y frecuentemente confieren resistencias múltiples a las pocas  opciones terapéuticas remanentes.<sup><span lang="ES-CO">55</span></sup></font></p>     <p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font face="Verdana" size="2">La ciprofloxacina y la  moxifloxacina pertenecen a la familia de las quinolonas.&nbsp; La ciprofloxacina  tiene actividad antimicrobiana contra la mayoría de bacilos Gram-negativos y  cocos, pero presenta actividad limitada contra la mayoría de Gram- positivos y  periodontopatógenos.&nbsp; Ha mostrado resultados favorables contra las  enterobacterias en diferentes estudios in Vitro<span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">.</span><sup><span lang="ES-CO">11,  13, 14, 17</span></sup></font></p>     <p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font face="Verdana" size="2"> <span lang="ES-CO">La moxifloxacina  es una nueva fluoroquinolona con un espectro de actividad expandido, incluyendo  anaerobios y microorganismos Gram-positivos, especialmente aquellos multiresistentes.</span><sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">50</span></sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">&nbsp;  Pinheiro </span><sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana"> 50</span></sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">,  en un estudio in Vitro,&nbsp; reportó que la moxifloxacina fue uno de los  antibióticos más activos &nbsp;contra <i>E. Faecalis</i>, demostrando además más  actividad comparado con la ciprofloxacina.&nbsp; Además, la moxifloxacina ha  demostrado excelente biodisponibilidad, larga vida media, buena distribución  tisular y excelente tolerancia.</span><sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">56</span></sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">&nbsp;  Estudios recientes también han señalado buena actividad antibacteriana de la  moxifloxacina contra periodontopatógenos e infecciones odontogénicas.</span><sup><span lang="ES-CO" style="font-family: Verdana">  57-60</span></sup><span lang="ES-CO">&nbsp;  Aunque no se conocen estudios que evalúen la efectividad de la moxifloxacina  contra las enterobacterias presentes en placa subgingival, se&nbsp; convierte en una  alternativa viable contra el potente lipopolisacárido  presente en la pared celular de esta bacterias, el cual ha demostrado estimular  la activación celular y la producción de citoquinas proinflamatorias que podrían  aumentar el riesgo de complicadas enfermedades sistémicas.<sup>19, 20</sup></span></font></p>     <p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-weight: 700"> Bibliografía</span></font></p>     <!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana"> <span lang="EN-US">1. 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Eur J Dent Sci 2000; 108: 383-92.</span></font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=181386&pid=S0001-6365201000010001700006&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font face="Verdana" size="2"> <span lang="EN-US">7. Sanz M, Lau L,  Herrera D, Morillo J M, Silva A.&nbsp;Methods of detection of Actinobacillus  actinomycetemcomitans, Porphyromonas gingivalis and Tannerella forsythensis in  periodontal microbiology, with special emphasis on advanced molecular  techniques: a review. 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J Periodontol 1998; 69: 1111–18.</span></font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=181388&pid=S0001-6365201000010001700008&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font face="Verdana" size="2"> <span lang="ES-CO">9. Haffajje AD,  Borgen A, Hasturk H, Feres M, López NJ, Socransky SS. Subgingival microbiota of  chronic periodontitis subjects from different geographic locations. J Clin  Periodontol 2004; 31: 99</span><span lang="EN-US">6-1002.</span></font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=181389&pid=S0001-6365201000010001700009&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana"> <span lang="EN-US">10. Lopez N J,  Socransky S. S., Da S I, Japlit M R,&nbsp; Haffajee A D. Subgingival microbiota of  chilean patients with chronic periodontitis. J Periodontol 2004; 75: 717–25.</span></font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=181390&pid=S0001-6365201000010001700010&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana"> <span lang="EN-US">11. Slots J, Feik  D, Rams TE. Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of <i>Enterobacteriaceae</i>, <i>Pseudomonadaceae</i> and <i>Acinetobacter</i> in human periodontitis. Oral  Microbiol Inmunol 1990; 5:149-54.</span></font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=181391&pid=S0001-6365201000010001700011&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana"> <span lang="EN-US">12. Ali RW,  Bakken V, Nilsen R, Skaug N. Comparative detection frecuency of six putative  periodontal pathogens in Sudanese and Norwegian adult periodontitis patients. J&nbsp;  Periodontol 1994; 65:1046-52.</span></font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=181392&pid=S0001-6365201000010001700012&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font face="Verdana" size="2"> <span lang="EN-US">13. Barbosa FCB,  Mayer MPA, Saba-Chuifi E, Cai S. Subgingival occurrence and antimicrobial  susceptibility of enteric rods and pseudomonads from Brazilian periodontitis patients. </span> <span lang="EN-US" style="color: windowtext">Oral Microbiol Immunol.</span><span lang="EN-US">  2001;16:306-10.</span></font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=181393&pid=S0001-6365201000010001700013&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana"> <span lang="EN-US">14. Botero JE,  Arce RM, Escudero M, Betancourth M, Jaramillo, A, Contreras A l. Ocurrence of  periodontopatic and superinfecting bacteria in chronic an aggressive  periodontitis subject in a Colombia population. J Periodontol. 2007; 78:  696-704.</span></font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=181394&pid=S0001-6365201000010001700014&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 100%; word-spacing: 0" align="justify"> <font size="2" face="Verdana"> <span lang="EN-US">15. Lafaurie GI,  Contreras A, Baron A, Botero J, Mayorga-Fayad I, Jaramillo A, et al.&nbsp;  Demographic, clinical, and microbial aspects of chronic and aggressive  periodontitis in Colombia: a multicenter study. 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