<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0535-5133</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Investigación Clínica]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Invest. clín]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0535-5133</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas "Dr. Américo Negrette", Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0535-51332007000200009</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Aminoácidos extracelulares en la amígdala y el núcleo accumbens en la rata durante el dolor agudo]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Extracellular aminoacids in the amygdala and nucleus accumbens in the rat during acute pain]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Silva]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Elizabeth]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Hernández]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Luis]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad de Los Andes Escuela de Medicina Departamento de Fisiología]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[Mérida ]]></addr-line>
<country>Venezuela</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2007</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2007</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>48</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<fpage>213</fpage>
<lpage>224</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://ve.scielo.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0535-51332007000200009&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://ve.scielo.org/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0535-51332007000200009&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://ve.scielo.org/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0535-51332007000200009&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[En este trabajo se estudió la concentración extracelular de arginina, glutamato y aspartato en el núcleo basolateral de la amígdala y en la parte central del núcleo accumbens, durante la fase I del test de la formalina. Para ello se usó la técnica combinada de microdiálisis cerebral con electroforesis capilar con detección de fluorescencia inducida por láser, en ratas que se movían libremente. Después de la inyección de la formalina, el glutamato y la arginina aumentaron significativamente en la parte central del núcleo accumbens; en el núcleo basolateral de la amígdala, el glutamato, la arginina y el aspartato, aumentaron significativamente. Estos hallazgos sugieren que ocurren cambios neuroquímicos rápidos en estas zonas después de la inyección de formalina, cambios que pudieran estar relacionados con la inmovilidad y los estados emocionales como la ansiedad, la aversión y/o depresión causados por el dolor.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[In the present experiments extracellular arginine, glutamate and aspartate were studied in the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala and core of the nucleus accumbens during the formalin test (phase I). A combination of capillary zone electrophoresis with laser induced fluorescence detection and microdialysis in freely moving rats was used. Glutamate and arginine significantly increased in the nucleus accumbens after formalin injection; glutamate, arginine and aspartate significantly increased in the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala, after formalin injection. These experiments suggest that rapid neurotransmitters changes observed in the nucleus accumbens and amygdala, are possibly related to immobility and emotional states such as anxiety, aversion and/or depression caused by pain.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Núcleo accumbens]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[amígdala]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[test de la formalina]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[aminoácidos]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[microdiálisis]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[electroforesis capilar]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Nucleus accumbens]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[amygdala]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[formalin test]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[amino acids]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[microdialysis]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[capillary electrophoresis]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[  <BASEFONT SIZE="3">     <P ALIGN="center"><font color="#1f1a17" face="Verdana" size="3"><b>Amino&#225;cidos extracelulares en la am&#237;gdala y el n&#250;cleo <I>accumbens</I> en la rata  durante el dolor agudo.&nbsp;</b></font></P>     <P ALIGN="center"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> Elizabeth Silva y Luis Hern&#225;ndez.&nbsp; </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> Laboratorio de Fisiolog&#237;a de la Conducta y Departamento de Fisiolog&#237;a. Escuela  de Medicina, Universidad de Los Andes (ULA). M&#233;rida, Venezuela. Correo  electr&#243;nico: rosas@ula.ve.&nbsp; </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><font size="2"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana"> Resumen. </FONT></B> <FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana">  En este trabajo se estudi&#243; la concentraci&#243;n extracelular de arginina,  glutamato y aspartato en el n&#250;cleo basolateral de la am&#237;gdala y en la parte  central del n&#250;cleo <I>accumbens</I>, durante la fase I del test de la formalina.  Para ello se us&#243; la t&#233;cnica combinada de microdi&#225;lisis cerebral con electroforesis  capilar con detecci&#243;n de fluorescencia inducida por l&#225;ser, en ratas que  se mov&#237;an libremente. Despu&#233;s de la inyecci&#243;n de la formalina, el glutamato  y la arginina aumentaron significativamente en la parte central del n&#250;cleo  <I>accumbens; </I>en el n&#250;cleo basolateral de la am&#237;gdala, el glutamato, la arginina  y el aspartato, aumentaron significativamente. Estos hallazgos sugieren  que ocurren cambios neuroqu&#237;micos r&#225;pidos en estas zonas despu&#233;s de la  inyecci&#243;n de formalina, cambios que pudieran estar relacionados con la  inmovilidad y los estados emocionales como la ansiedad, la aversi&#243;n y/o  depresi&#243;n causados por el dolor.&nbsp; </FONT></font></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><font size="2"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana"> Palabras clave:&nbsp;</FONT></B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana">N&#250;cleo <I>accumbens</I>, am&#237;gdala, test de la formalina, amino&#225;cidos, microdi&#225;lisis,  electroforesis capilar.&nbsp;</FONT></font></P>     <P ALIGN="center"><font size="2"><B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana">Extracellular aminoacids in the amygdala and nucleus </FONT> </B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana"><I><B>accumbens </B></I><B>in the rat  during acute pain.</B></FONT></font></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><font size="2"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana"> Abstract. </FONT></B> <FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana">  In the present experiments extracellular arginine, glutamate  and aspartate were studied in the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala and  core of the nucleus <I>accumbens</I> during the formalin test (phase I). A combination  of capillary zone electrophoresis with laser induced fluorescence detection  and microdialysis in freely moving rats was used. Glutamate and arginine  significantly increased in the nucleus <I>accumbens </I>after formalin injection;  glutamate, arginine and aspartate significantly increased in the basolateral  nucleus of the amygdala, after formalin injection. These experiments suggest  that rapid neurotransmitters changes observed in the nucleus <I>accumbens</I>  and amygdala, are possibly related to immobility and emotional states such  as anxiety, aversion and/or depression caused by pain.&nbsp; </FONT></font></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><font size="2"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana"> Key words:&nbsp;</FONT></B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana">Nucleus <I>accumbens</I>, amygdala, formalin test, amino acids, microdialysis,  capillary electrophoresis.&nbsp;</FONT></font></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> Recibido: 28-03-2006. Aceptado: 27-07-2006.&nbsp; </FONT></P>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p ALIGN="justify"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> INTRODUCCI&#211;N&nbsp; </FONT></B>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> Las microinyecciones de morfina en el n&#250;cleo <I>accumbens</I> (Nac) producen analgesia  profunda (1, 2). Efectos similares se observan cuando se inyecta morfina  en la am&#237;gdala o la sustancia gris periacueductal (PAG), que son regiones  conectadas al Nac (3, 4). Las microinyecciones de morfina en el Nac aumentan  la liberaci&#243;n de encefalinas y beta endorfinas en la PAG y en la am&#237;gdala.  El aumento de los opioides end&#243;genos que se produce al hacer microinyecciones  de morfina en el Nac se bloquea mediante la administraci&#243;n, en la PAG,  de naloxona y/o anticuerpos contra la met-encefalina (5). La activaci&#243;n  simult&#225;nea de los receptores opioides mu y delta produce analgesia y los  receptores kapa parecen tener un rol anti analg&#233;sico en el Nac (6). La  morfina induce un incremento en el recambio de dopamina en el sistema l&#237;mbico  (Nac inclu&#237;do) y &#233;ste incremento es inhibido significativamente por el  tratamiento con formalina. Esta inhibici&#243;n, a su vez, es suprimida por  el pretratamiento con nor-binaltorfimina (nor-BNI, antagonista de los receptores  kapa opioide) (7). Las sustancias (+)TANG67 y (&#150;) TANG67, que act&#250;an sobre  los receptores opioides delta en el Nac pueden generar radicales libres  que a su vez liberan glutamato que act&#250;a sobre los receptores NMDA y promueve  la liberaci&#243;n de dopamina del Nac (8). La inyecci&#243;n intracerebro-ventricular  de glutamato aumenta la descarga de neuronas excitadas por el dolor en  el Nac y esta acci&#243;n es bloqueada por la inyecci&#243;n del antagonista MK-801,  lo que involucra los receptores NMDA y el glutamato en la modulaci&#243;n de  la informaci&#243;n nociceptiva en el Nac (9). Otro trabajo sugiere que la analgesia  que produce la inyecci&#243;n de morfina en el Nac parece estar mediada por  la supresi&#243;n de la actividad inhibitoria de las neuronas gaba&#233;rgicas que  se localizan en este n&#250;cleo (10). En animales que reciben formalina, la  inyecci&#243;n de bupeca&#237;na en la parte central del Nac produce analgesia, en  cambio la misma inyecci&#243;n en la parte perif&#233;rica no altera el test de dolor  (11).&nbsp; </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> La participaci&#243;n de la am&#237;gdala en la modulaci&#243;n del dolor y la analgesia  se sugiere a partir del halllazgo en el cual, al inyectar la morfina <I>in  situ</I>, como al aplicar agonistas &#181; y al estimular el&#233;ctricamente la am&#237;gdala  se produce un aumento del umbral al dolor. La naltrexona en la PAG, la  naloxona <I>in situ</I>, y/o la destrucci&#243;n de la am&#237;gdala producen una atenuaci&#243;n  de la analgesia por acupuntura o por morfina (12-17). La am&#237;gdala y el  hipot&#225;lamo pudieran estar envueltos en las reacciones motivacionales y  la adaptaci&#243;n neuroendocrina que ocurre en el organismo ante un est&#237;mulo  nocivo (18). Hay un sustrato morfol&#243;gico de la v&#237;a analg&#233;sica, desde los  n&#250;cleos del rafe dorsal hacia la am&#237;gdala (19). Estudios de conducta y  de microdi&#225;lisis muestran que el dolor sostenido producido por la inyecci&#243;n  de formalina intraplantar induce aversi&#243;n condicionada a trav&#233;s del aumento  de la liberaci&#243;n de glutamato y de la activaci&#243;n de los receptores NMDA  en la am&#237;gdala basolateral. La inyecci&#243;n de morfina en este n&#250;cleo suprime  la liberaci&#243;n de glutamato y dicha aversi&#243;n (20). En la am&#237;gdala, el estr&#233;s  persistente aumenta el marcaje para la quinasa proteica C mediada por los  receptores NMDA (21).&nbsp; </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> La acci&#243;n del amino&#225;cido excitador glutamato en el cerebro parece ser compleja,  ya que la activaci&#243;n de estos receptores en algunas &#225;reas como el t&#225;lamo  y los n&#250;cleos sensoriales trigeminales parece ser pro-nociceptiva (22,  23), en cambio en otra zonas como la PAG y bulbo raqu&#237;deo ventrolateral  parece ser antinociceptiva (24, 25).&nbsp; </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> El &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO) es un gas neuromodulador sintetizado a partir de  la L- arginina por acci&#243;n de la enzima NO sintetasa (NOS). El NO ha sido  implicado en el dolor, ya que los inhibidores de la NOS aten&#250;an la hiperalgesia  t&#233;rmica (26). Se sabe que el exceso de activaci&#243;n del receptor NMDA aumenta  el calcio citoplasm&#225;tico y contribuye a la neurotoxicidad del glutamato  (27). Se ha demostrado que la aplicaci&#243;n de NMDA durante 5 minutos, en  ausencia de L-arginina, induce la muerte neuronal, y la presencia de l-arginina  durante la aplicaci&#243;n de NMDA previene la p&#233;rdida neuronal por bloqueo  de la formaci&#243;n de peroxinitrito y super&#243;xido. As&#237;, la L-arginina parece  ser un importante modulador de la excitotoxicidad debida al glutamato.  La L-arginina derivada de la gl&#237;a inhibe la formaci&#243;n de radicales t&#243;xicos  inducida por NMDA, la disfunci&#243;n mitocondrial y la muerte celular (28).&nbsp; </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> El prop&#243;sito del presente trabajo fue investigar como cambia el contenido  extracelular de los amino&#225;cidos glutamato, aspartato y arginina en el n&#250;cleo  basolateral de la am&#237;gdala y el Nac, durante la fase I del test de la formalina  (0-10 min) usando las t&#233;cnicas combinadas de microdi&#225;lisis y electroforesis  capilar con detecci&#243;n de fluorescencia inducida por l&#225;ser (CZE-LIFD), en  ratas que se mueven libremente.&nbsp; </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> MATERIALES Y M&#201;TODOS&nbsp; </FONT></B> </P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> Se utilizaron 24 ratas Wistar machos de peso corporal comprendido entre  250 y 300 g. Para la cirug&#237;a, fueron anestesiadas con Pentobarbital y colocadas  en un instrumento estereot&#225;xico. El procedimiento quir&#250;rgico est&#225; bien  descrito en trabajos previos (29, 30). Brevemente, se implant&#243; en el lado  izquierdo del cerebro una c&#225;nula gu&#237;a de 10 mm hecha de tubo de acero inoxidable  de 21 gauge, de acuerdo a las siguientes coordenadas: a) para la parte  central del n&#250;cleo <I>accumbens</I>: 1 mm lateral a la sutura sagital; 2,2 mm  anterior al bregma y 2,6 mm ventral a la superficie craneal; b) para el  n&#250;cleo basolateral de la am&#237;gdala: 5 mm lateral a la sutura sagital; 2,8  mm posterior al bregma y 4,5 mm ventral a la superficie craneal (31). La  c&#225;nula gu&#237;a se cement&#243; a la superficie del cr&#225;neo con tornillos de cabeza  con huecos hexagonales y acr&#237;lico dental. Despu&#233;s de 7 d&#237;as de recuperaci&#243;n  las ratas estuvieron listas para la microdi&#225;lisis.&nbsp; </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><font size="2"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana"> Procedimiento de microdi&#225;lisis</FONT></B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana">&nbsp;</FONT></font></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> Las c&#225;nulas se fabricaron a partir de una pieza de fibra hueca de celulosa  (200 &#181;m de di&#225;metro externo, con perforaciones que no permiten el paso  de mol&#233;culas cuyo peso molecular sea superior a 13.000 Daltons), fijada  con epoxi al extremo de un tubo de acero inoxidable. En el interior de  ambos se coloc&#243; un capilar de s&#237;lica fundida, cubierta de poliimida, de  10 cm de largo, 76 &#181;m de di&#225;metro interno, y 150 &#181;m de di&#225;metro externo.  La c&#225;nula de di&#225;lisis sobresal&#237;a 5 mm del final de la c&#225;nula gu&#237;a, pero  la longitud efectiva de la zona de ultrafiltraci&#243;n era de 2 mm (31). La  entrada de la c&#225;nula estaba unida a un tubo de polietileno que se conect&#243;  a una jeringa llena de l&#237;quido c&#233;faloraqu&#237;deo artificial (NaCl 134,9 mM;  KCl 3,7 mM; CaCl<FONT COLOR="#1f1a17"><SUB>2 </SUB>1,2 mM; MgCl<SUB>2 </SUB>1 mM y NaHCO<SUB>3 </SUB>10 mM, a un pH de 7,4) colocada  en una bomba que perfundi&#243; a un flujo de 1&#181;L/min. El d&#237;a anterior al experimento  se les insert&#243; a las ratas la c&#225;nula de microdi&#225;lisis con un flujo a 0,4  &#181;L/min. Se dejaron toda la noche y al d&#237;a siguiente se cambi&#243; el flujo  a 1 &#181;L/min y se esper&#243; 1&nbsp;hora. Despu&#233;s se tomaron 10 muestras basales en  microtubos y se realiz&#243; el experimento que consisti&#243; en inyectar 50 &#181;L  de formalina diluida (5%) en la pata derecha de la rata. Se sigui&#243; recolectando  las muestras durante 10 min m&#225;s. Las muestras se recolectaron cada 30 seg.  En los controles, la inyecci&#243;n en la pata fue de 50 &#181;L de soluci&#243;n salina.  En total 12 ratas con c&#225;nulas en el Nac fueron divididas en dos grupos  de 6 cada uno (experimental: formalina y control: salina) y 12 ratas con  c&#225;nulas en el n&#250;cleo basolateral de la am&#237;gdala fueron divididas de igual  manera en dos grupos de 6 ratas cada uno (experimental: formalina y control:  salina). Luego se derivatiz&#243; cada muestra siguiendo el protocolo descrito  abajo. Se dejaron 18 horas en la oscuridad. Luego se analizaron en el instrumento  de electroforesis capilar.&nbsp;</FONT> </FONT></P>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> Despu&#233;s de los experimentos los animales fueron anestesiados profundamente,  perfundidos trans card&#237;acamente con una soluci&#243;n de suero fisiol&#243;gico seguida  de formol (5%) y se disecaron los cerebros dej&#225;ndolos en soluci&#243;n de formol  (10%) para fijarlos, durante 2 d&#237;as. Luego se hicieron cortes de 40 &#181;m  de grosor con un micr&#243;tomo de congelaci&#243;n; los cortes no te&#241;idos se observaron  en un microscopio del luz para localizar la posici&#243;n de las c&#225;nulas gu&#237;as.&nbsp; </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><font size="2"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana"> Procedimiento de derivatizaci&#243;n</FONT></B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana">&nbsp;</FONT></font></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> Las muestras fueron mezcladas con 0,5 &#181;L de la soluci&#243;n derivatizante hecha  de soluci&#243;n de carbonato 20 mM a un pH de 9,5 y una soluci&#243;n 2,5 &#215; 10<FONT COLOR="#1f1a17"><SUP>&#150;5 </SUP>M del is&#243;mero I de isotiocianato de fluoresce&#237;na (FITC) en acetona en una  proporci&#243;n de 1:1 (vol:vol). Seguidamente la mezcla se centrifug&#243; y se  dej&#243; en un sitio oscuro por lo menos durante 18 horas para permitir la  reacci&#243;n de los amino&#225;cidos con el FITC. Posteriormente cada vial que conten&#237;a  una muestra fue diluido con 5&#181;L de agua desionizada y centrifugado. Los  est&#225;ndares de arginina, glutamato, y aspartato fueron derivatizados con  el mismo protocolo.&nbsp;</FONT> </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><font size="2"><B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana"> Procedimiento de medici&#243;n en el instrumento de electroforesis capilar</FONT></B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana">&nbsp;</FONT></font></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> La detecci&#243;n de arginina, glutamato, y aspartato fue realizada utilizando  el instrumento R2D2-1 CZE-LIFD (Meridialysis<FONT COLOR="#1f1a17"><SUP>&#174;</SUP>, M&#233;rida, Venezuela) el cual  est&#225; equipado con un capilar de s&#237;lica fundida de 40 cm de longitud, 350  &#181;m de di&#225;metro externo y 25 &#181;m de di&#225;metro interno. Las muestras y los  est&#225;ndares de aspartato y glutamato fueron inyectados hidrodin&#225;micamente  en el extremo an&#243;dico del capilar por efecto de una presi&#243;n negativa de  19 psi aplicada durante 200 ms en el extremo cat&#243;dico del capilar. Luego  fueron aplicados 21 kV entre los dos extremos del capilar. El voltaje gener&#243;  una corriente de 7 &#181;A. Despu&#233;s de correr la muestra, el capilar fue lavado  con NaOH 1M por 2 min, luego con agua de 18&nbsp;M</FONT></FONT><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Symbol" size="2">W</FONT><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana">  durante 1 min y por &#250;ltimo  con una soluci&#243;n de carbonato por 2 min. Cada corrida completa demor&#243; 15  min, m&#225;s los tiempos de lavado.<B>&nbsp;</B> </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> En el electroferograma de cada muestra fueron identificados los amino&#225;cidos  (arginina, glutamato y aspartato) por el tiempo de migraci&#243;n y por la altura  de la espiga. La presencia de estos amino&#225;cidos fue comprobada de la siguiente  manera: despu&#233;s de haber le&#237;do la muestra se combin&#243; con una cantidad conocida  de est&#225;ndar de los amino&#225;cidos respectivos y luego se volvi&#243; a medir para  verificar que el pico de mayor magnitud era el que correspond&#237;a al amino&#225;cido  del est&#225;ndar. Una vez corridas todas las muestras por electroforesis capilar  se determin&#243; la altura de los picos y se calcul&#243; la concentraci&#243;n por comparaci&#243;n  con las soluciones est&#225;ndar.&nbsp; </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><font size="2"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana"> An&#225;lisis estad&#237;stico</FONT></B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana">&nbsp;</FONT></font></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> Se calcul&#243; para cada rata el promedio de la concentraci&#243;n basal sobre nueve  muestras basales (previas al experimento). Los datos normalizados fueron  analizados usando el ANOVA de una v&#237;a, el ANOVA de medidas repetidas y  el post test Newman-Keuls. El nivel de significaci&#243;n estad&#237;stica fue de  p &lt; 0,05 (programas estad&#237;sticos SPSS 8.0 y del GraphPad Prism para Windows).&nbsp; </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> RESULTADOS&nbsp; </FONT></B> </P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><font size="2"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana"> Experimentos conductuales</FONT></B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana">&nbsp;</FONT></font></P>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> El test de la formalina se usa como modelo de dolor animal. La inyecci&#243;n  de formalina produce una respuesta bif&#225;sica: a) Fase 1, que dura de 7 a  10 min y b) Fase 2, que dura entre 45 min a 1 hora (32). Se decidi&#243; estudiar  solo la fase 1, bas&#225;ndonos en estudios previos, en los que la liberaci&#243;n  de glutamato es mayor en la fase 1 que en la fase 2 (23).&nbsp; </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> Se estudi&#243; la conducta de contracci&#243;n de la pata minuto a minuto en los  primeros 10 minutos despu&#233;s de la inyecci&#243;n de formalina, en ratas no operadas  y operadas para la microdi&#225;lisis. Se observ&#243; que en ambos casos la respuesta  fue similar y hubo mayor frecuencia de contracciones en los primeros minutos;  despu&#233;s la respuesta fue disminuyendo hasta hacerse muy escasa los &#250;ltimos  minutos. A su vez, en el minuto 1 y 2 se encontr&#243; una diferencia estad&#237;sticamente  significativa (p &lt; 0,05) con el test ANOVA de medidas repetidas seguidos  de post test de contraste entre los dos grupos. (<a href="#fig1">Fig. 1</a>).&nbsp; </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="center"><a name="fig1"><img border="0" src="/img/fbpe/ic/v48n2/art09fig1.gif" width="441" height="548"></a></P>     
<P ALIGN="justify"> <I><font size="2"><B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana"> Nucleus accumbens</FONT></B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana">&nbsp;</FONT></font></I></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><font size="2"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana"> Arginina: </FONT></B> <FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana">  La concentraci&#243;n basal de arginina fue 0,62 &#177; 0,06 &#181;M. La arginina  aument&#243; 2 veces su valor inicial en relaci&#243;n a la l&#237;nea base previa, un  minuto despu&#233;s de la inyecci&#243;n de formalina; luego descendi&#243; y se mantuvo  as&#237; el resto del tiempo (F(22/110) = 1,63; p &lt; 0,03) (<a href="#fig2">Fig.  2A</a>).&nbsp; </FONT></font></P>     <P ALIGN="center"><a name="fig2"><img border="0" src="/img/fbpe/ic/v48n2/art09fig2.gif" width="430" height="1127"></a></P>     
<P ALIGN="justify"><font size="2"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana"> Glutamato: </FONT> </B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana"> La concentraci&#243;n basal de glutamato fue 0,70 &#177; 0,10 &#181;M. El glutamato  aument&#243; 3 veces el valor inicial despu&#233;s de la inyecci&#243;n de formalina y  luego descendi&#243; r&#225;pidamente en el minuto siguiente, luego vuelve a ascender  un poco, para descender y mantenerse bajo el resto del tiempo (F(22/110)  = 2,93; p &lt; 0,002) (<a href="#fig2">Fig. 2B</a>).&nbsp; </FONT></font></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><font size="2"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana"> Aspartato: </FONT></B> <FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana">  La concentraci&#243;n basal de aspartato fue 0,80 &#177; 0,10 &#181;M. El aspartato  aument&#243; despu&#233;s de la inyecci&#243;n de formalina, pero las variaciones de las  dos curvas no fueron estad&#237;sticamente significativas (F(22/110) = 0,89;  p n.s.) (<a href="#fig2">Fig. 2C</a>).&nbsp; </FONT></font></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><font size="2"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana"> Am&#237;gdala</FONT></B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana">&nbsp;</FONT></font></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><font size="2"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana"> Arginina: </FONT></B> <FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana">  La concentraci&#243;n basal de arginina fue 0,90 &#177; 0,08 &#181;M. Despu&#233;s  de la inyecci&#243;n de formalina, la arginina aument&#243; m&#225;s de dos veces el nivel  inicial y descendi&#243; r&#225;pidamente y se mantuvo as&#237; algunos minutos, para  volver a ascender pero menos y volver a descender a los niveles basales  (F(22/110) = 1,60; p &lt; 0,05) (<a href="#fig3">Fig. 3A</a>).&nbsp; </FONT></font></P>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p ALIGN="center"><a name="fig3"><img border="0" src="/img/fbpe/ic/v48n2/art09fig3.gif" width="431" height="1054"></a>     
<P ALIGN="justify"><font size="2"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana"> Glutamato: </FONT></B> <FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana">  La concentraci&#243;n basal de glutamato fue 1,00 &#177; 0,20 &#181;M. El glutamato  aument&#243; 6 veces su valor inicial, despu&#233;s de la inyecci&#243;n de formalina,  y luego descendi&#243; r&#225;pidamente, durante algunos minutos se mantuvo en los  niveles basales, para luego volver a ascender y descender r&#225;pidamente a  los valores basales (F(22/110) = 1,62; p &lt; 0,05) (<a href="#fig3">Fig. 3B</a>).&nbsp; </FONT></font></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><font size="2"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana"> Aspartato: </FONT></B> <FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" face="Verdana">  La concentraci&#243;n basal de aspartato fue 1,00 &#177; 0,09 &#181;M. El aspartato  aument&#243; 2,5 veces el valor inicial, breve, pero significativamente, despu&#233;s  del est&#237;mulo nocivo; despu&#233;s se mantuvo bajo, para volver a ascender y  descender r&#225;pidamente, retornando a los valores basales (F(22/110) = 1,61;  p &lt; 0,05) (<a href="#fig3">Fig. 3C</a>).&nbsp; </FONT></font></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> DISCUSI&#211;N&nbsp; </FONT></B> </P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> En el experimento presente la conducta relacionada con el dolor, que es  la contracci&#243;n de la pata despu&#233;s de la inyecci&#243;n de formalina, fue m&#225;s  frecuente en el primer y segundo minuto, mientras que la inyecci&#243;n de soluci&#243;n  salina no produjo ninguna respuesta de dolor (no mostrado). No se encontraron  diferencias entre el grupo no operado y el grupo de ratas operadas para  microdi&#225;lisis. La aplicaci&#243;n de la inyecci&#243;n de formalina en la pata trasera  de las ratas increment&#243; la concentraci&#243;n de glutamato y arginina en el  l&#237;quido extracelular de la parte central del Nac y en el n&#250;cleo basolateral  de la am&#237;gdala se encontr&#243; un aumento de arginina, glutamato y aspartato.  Nuestros resultados mostraron una muy buena asociaci&#243;n temporal entre el  aumento de los amino&#225;cidos y la conducta provocada por el dolor (<a href="#fig1">Fig. 1</a>).&nbsp; </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> El aumento de glutamato causar&#237;a excitaci&#243;n de las neuronas de la parte  central del Nac porque el glutamato es el neurotransmisor excitador m&#225;s  abundante del cerebro (34). Los est&#237;mulos dolorosos excitan algunas neuronas  en el Nac y las inyecciones intratecales de glutamato potencian el aumento  de la descarga de las neuronas del Nac durante el dolor (9). Actualmente  se acepta que el Nac participa en el dolor, las reacciones de placer y  aversi&#243;n y en la actividad locomotora general (35). La inyecci&#243;n de morfina  directamente en el Nac produce analgesia en el test de la formalina (36,  37). En general, se ha observado que cuando el animal recibe un est&#237;mulo  placentero, como por ejemplo alimento despu&#233;s de un ayuno forzado, la concentraci&#243;n  de glutamato en el l&#237;quido extracelular del n&#250;cleo <I>accumbens</I> disminuye  (38). Al contrario, cuando un animal recibe un est&#237;mulo aversivo, la concentraci&#243;n  extracelular de glutamato aumenta. Por ejemplo, la aplicaci&#243;n de un sonido  previamente asociado con un shock el&#233;ctrico aplicado a las patas del animal,  y de diversas formas de estr&#233;s como la inmovilizaci&#243;n forzada (39, 40)  aumentan el glutamato extracelular en el Nac. Nuestros experimentos permiten  asociar el aumento de glutamato de la parte central del Nac con la percepci&#243;n  del car&#225;cter aversivo del est&#237;mulo. En efecto, la inyecci&#243;n de formalina  induce, en los primeros segundos, varios comportamientos como contracci&#243;n  de la pata estimulada, lamerse la pata, dejar de apoyarla en el piso, vocalizar  y permanecer inm&#243;vil, que indican aversi&#243;n. Los resultados aqu&#237; reportados  muestran que el incremento de glutamato en la parte central del Nac ocurre  en los primeros treinta segundos despu&#233;s de la inyecci&#243;n de formalina y  por lo tanto hay una buena correlaci&#243;n temporal entre las respuestas que  indican aversi&#243;n y la elevaci&#243;n de glutamato extracelular en el Nac. La  liberaci&#243;n de glutamato de la parte central del Nac inducida por la inyecci&#243;n  de formalina est&#233; asociada a la sensaci&#243;n desagradable que se produce durante  el dolor.&nbsp; </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> El Nac es uno de los sustratos del sistema de control de la actividad locomotora  general (35). La inhibici&#243;n de las neuronas del Nac causa aumento de la  actividad locomotora. Las inyecciones de bloqueadores de los receptores  glutamat&#233;rgicos tipo NMDA aumentan la actividad locomotora general y las  inyecciones de glutamato la disminuyen (41, 42). Es probable que el incremento  de glutamato encontrado en el presente trabajo contribuya a la inmovilidad  general producida por el est&#237;mulo doloroso.&nbsp; </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> En este trabajo las concentraciones de glutamato y aspartato aumentaron  en los dializados del n&#250;cleo basolateral de la am&#237;gdala. Estudios conductuales  y con microdi&#225;lisis muestran que el dolor inducido experimentalmente por  una inyecci&#243;n intraplantar de formalina produce aversi&#243;n al lugar asociado  con la inyecci&#243;n y que dicha aversi&#243;n coincide con un incremento de glutamato  que a su vez activa receptores NMDA en el n&#250;cleo basolateral de la am&#237;gdala,  y las inyecciones de morfina en el n&#250;cleo basolateral de la am&#237;gdala eliminan  tanto el condicionamiento aversivo como la liberaci&#243;n de glutamato (20).  El incremento de glutamato y aspartato sigui&#243; un curso temporal bimodal,  es decir, hubo dos incrementos de cada uno de estos amino&#225;cidos excitadores  y los dos incrementos estuvieron separados por un lapso de 3 a 4 minutos.  Se cree que el primer aumento (tanto del comportamiento, como de los amino&#225;cidos  excitadores) se debe a la sensaci&#243;n dolorosa causada por la excitaci&#243;n  de terminaciones nerviosas libres asociadas a fibras miel&#237;nicas tipo A  delta que tienen un conducci&#243;n r&#225;pida. El segundo componente se ha asociado  a la estimulaci&#243;n de fibras amiel&#237;nicas tipo C. Lo interesante es que los  dos componentes de la respuesta neuroqu&#237;mica aparecen en la am&#237;gdala la  cual es un centro nervioso que no est&#225; asociado directamente a la sensaci&#243;n  dolorosa sino a fen&#243;menos emocionales como la aversi&#243;n y la depresi&#243;n.&nbsp; </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> Existen abundantes evidencias de que la am&#237;gdala es activada por est&#237;mulos  aversivos en general y por el dolor en particular. Las evidencias se han  obtenido tanto en estudios de fMRI en seres humanos (43-49) como en estudios  experimentales en los cuales se midi&#243; el flujo sangu&#237;neo cerebral mediante  la autorradiograf&#237;a (50). En la mayor&#237;a de estos estudios se observa activaci&#243;n  de la am&#237;gdala. En otros estudios han sido trazadas las v&#237;as anat&#243;micas  que conectan los centros nerviosos del dolor en la corteza cerebral y el  t&#225;lamo con la regi&#243;n basolateral de la am&#237;gdala (51-55) as&#237; como los centros  nerviosos del dolor en la m&#233;dula espinal y el talllo cerebral tambi&#233;n con  la am&#237;gdala (56, 57). Existen adem&#225;s evidencias que demuestran que la presentaci&#243;n  de un est&#237;mulo aversivo a un animal aumenta los niveles de glutamato en  la am&#237;gdala particularmente cuando el animal ha sido condicionado. La presencia  de una soluci&#243;n s&#225;pida y novedosa dentro de la boca de un animal que fue  sometido a condicionamiento aversivo, causa un gran incremento de glutamato  en el n&#250;cleo basolateral de la am&#237;gdala (58). Por lo tanto, es muy probable  que el incremento de glutamato en el n&#250;cleo basolateral de la am&#237;gdala  que encontramos en el presente experimento est&#233; relacionado con las sensaciones  de aversi&#243;n que acompa&#241;an al dolor.&nbsp; </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> Tanto en el Nac como en el n&#250;cleo basolateral de la am&#237;gdala, el est&#237;mulo  doloroso caus&#243; incremento de los niveles extracelulares de arginina, que  es el amino&#225;cido precursor del NO. Este incremento inducido por el dolor  ha sido encontrado en trabajos previos de nuestro grupo (22, 24). El glutamato  que se libera act&#250;a sobre los receptores glutamat&#233;rgicos ubicados en las  c&#233;lulas gliales y estas liberan arginina. Esta arginina entra en las neuronas  glutamat&#233;rgicas y produce NO mediante la activaci&#243;n de un pool sustrato  dependiente de la enzima NOS. Sin embargo, hay varios experimentos que  demuestran que se requiere el NO en la am&#237;gdala lateral para que se produzca  la memoria de eventos aversivos (59). Las inyecciones de L-arginina en  el n&#250;cleo <I>accumbens</I> producen condicionamiento de preferencia por el lugar  en el cual la rata las recibi&#243; (60).&nbsp; </FONT></P>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> En conclusi&#243;n, el presente trabajo muestra datos experimentales que sugieren  que la arginina y el glutamato son liberados en el Nac y en el n&#250;cleo basolateral  de la am&#237;gdala durante la estimulaci&#243;n nociceptiva (test de la formalina,  fase I) y que esta liberaci&#243;n puede indicar la existencia de un mecanismo  que explique c&#243;mo se producen los componentes afectivos del dolor, como  la aversi&#243;n.&nbsp; </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> AGRADECIMIENTOS&nbsp; </FONT></B> </P>     <P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> Esta investigaci&#243;n pudo realizarse gracias al apoyo del Consejo de Desarrollo  Cient&#237;fico, Human&#237;stico y Tecnol&#243;gico (CDCHT) de la Universidad de los  Andes (M&#233;rida, Venezuela) a trav&#233;s de los proyectos M-821- 05-03-A.&nbsp; </FONT></P>     <P ALIGN="justify"> <B><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> REFERENCIAS&nbsp; </FONT></B> </P>     <!-- ref --><P ALIGN="justify"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" size="2" face="Verdana"> 1.&nbsp;<B>Roger RJ.</B> Influence of intra amygdaloid opiate injection on shock threshold,  tail flick latencies and open field behavior in rats. 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