1.1. Gender Stereotypes

Entrepreneurship is widely recognized as a key driver of economic growth and innovation. However, gender differences in entrepreneurial intentions remain a concern in both academic research and educational environments. Gender stereotypes have long shaped perceptions of entrepreneurship, influencing decisions and behaviors of men and women (^{Hentschel et al., 2019}; ^{Endendijk et al., 2013}). These stereotypes, embedded in societal beliefs, assign specific traits and roles to individuals based on their gender, which often results in shaping students' entrepreneurial aspirations (^{Ellemers, 2018}).

According to social role theory, gender stereotypes both emerge from and reinforce traditional roles, often associating men with leadership and risk-taking while perceiving women as more nurturing (^{Eagly, 1987}; ^{Kollmayer et al., 2016}). This dynamic is particularly relevant in educational settings, where future entrepreneurs are shaped, and where these stereotypes can significantly influence career decisions and self-assessment of entrepreneurial capabilities (^{Charlesworth & Banaji, 2022}; ^{Liñán et al., 2022}). Despite changing roles over time, these stereotypes remain stable and continue to impact attitudes toward entrepreneurship.

Gender orientation, reflecting how individuals internalize and act according to these stereotypes, plays a crucial role in entrepreneurial intentions (^{Ahl, 2006}; ^{Bem, 1974}). Research suggests that men are more likely to identify with characteristics linked to leadership and competitiveness, while women face additional barriers, including limited access to resources and support networks (^{Mueller & Conway Dato-On, 2013}; ^{Laguía et al., 2019}). This underscores the need for educational institutions to implement gender-sensitive programs to promote a more equitable view of entrepreneurship.

This study explores how gender stereotypes and gender orientation influence the entrepreneurial intentions of university students in Mexico. A quantitative approach was used to survey 399 students from the University of Guadalajara, focusing on their perceptions of gender stereotypes and their relationship with entrepreneurial aspirations. By highlighting these dynamics, this research aims to provide insights into how educational strategies can address gender disparities and foster a more inclusive entrepreneurial environment.

1.2. Gender Orientation

Individual socialization promotes internalizing characteristics and behaviors that align with conventional gender stereotypes (^{Eagly, 1987}; ^{Powell & Eddleston, 2013}). In this way, gender stereotypes can significantly influence people's thinking and actions (Gupta et al., 2008; ^{Zampetakis et al., 2016}). This process culminates in forming a Gender Orientation, which reflects how individuals perceive themselves based on attributes associated with gender (^{Bem, 1974}).

Gender is a social construct, and gender expectations differ across cultures and can evolve (^{Kari, n.d.}). Gender orientationis an individual characteristic that influences personal attitudes, social behavior, and professional choices that align with the prevailing gender stereotypes in society (^{Liñan et al., 2022}). In this context, men are expected to adopt a masculine way of thinking and behaving, while women are expected to behave femininely (^{Mueller & Conway Dato-On, 2013}).

According to ^{Livingston and Judge (2008)}, gender orientation can be used to discern an individual's attitudes toward gender roles, whether egalitarian or traditional. Those with a traditional orientation typically believe that men should be the primary breadwinners in the family and prioritize work over family life. At the same time, women should assume the role of caregivers and prioritize family over work. On the other hand, those with an egalitarian orientation believe that work and family responsibilities are equally important for both sexes (^{Zhao et al., 2017}).

^{Bem (1974)} argued that gender orientations establish social norms regarding appropriate behavior for men and women. However, this conception could limit the freedom of action for those who conform to masculine or feminine stereotypes. Bem noted that masculinity has been linked to an instrumental orientation focused on task completion and work performance. At the same time, femininity has been associated with an expressive orientation characterized by an affective concern for the well-being of others (^{Liu et al., 2019}). Similarly, Bem suggests that individuals can also be "androgynous," meaning they may exhibit both masculine and feminine characteristics and adopt an instrumental or expressive orientation depending on the situation.

The relationship between a person's biological sex and their gender orientation is not always direct or exclusive. Accordingly, the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) considers masculinity and femininity as separate and autonomous dimensions (^{Bem, 1974}), where individuals with high scores in one dimension tend to display the stereotypical traits corresponding to that gender. Those who score high in both dimensions exhibit masculine and feminine traits (androgynous). In contrast, those with low scores in both dimensions do not identify with the typical traits of either gender (undifferentiated). Thus, only a portion of women identify with a stereotypical feminine orientation, while there is also the possibility of having a masculine, androgynous, or undifferentiated gender role. The same applies to men, offering a broad spectrum of gender identities beyond traditional classifications (^{Bem, 1974}).

According to gender schema theory (Bem, 1981), people's identification with certain genders results from how they schematically process gender information, following cultural definitions of what is considered masculine and feminine.

The BSRI was proposed as a tool to classify individuals into different gender categories and assess their gender orientation, offering a critique of the traditional bipolar view of masculinity and femininity as mutually exclusive. Bem argued against the idea that there is a direct correlation between a person's biological sex and their gender identity, instead proposing that individuals can possess varied combinations of masculine and feminine traits, resulting in the four gender categories: masculine, feminine, androgynous, and undifferentiated (^{Perez-Quintana et al., 2017}).

1.3. Gender Orientation and Entrepreneurial Intentions

In recent years, various studies have demonstrated the interrelationship between entrepreneurial behavior and the identification of gender differences (^{Vamvaka et al., 2020}; ^{Shirokova et al., 2016}). The importance of examining entrepreneurship and its relationship with factors such as personality traits or situational factors, including gender differences between men and women, has gained prominence (^{Zisser et al., 2019}). The effects of gender roles and cultural identity on the business growth intentions of men and women (^{Zampetakis et al., 2016}) and gender orientation in entrepreneurial intentions (^{Passah & Panda, 2022}; ^{Adamus et al., 2021}) have also been studied.

The relationship between gender orientation, specifically masculine and feminine characteristics, and entrepreneurship can be observed through identifying opportunities, given the cognitive styles of both genders (^{Li et al., 2020}). However, ^{Liñan et al., (2024)} argue that entrepreneurship has been more closely associated with masculine stereotypes due to characteristics like leadership, competitiveness, risk-taking, ambition, and self-confidence (^{Laguía et al., 2019}), which negatively influence women's interest in starting a business (^{Drydakis et al., 2018}; ^{Camelo-Ordaz et al., 2016}). Additionally, it has been observed that women face more significant challenges in accessing the resources and support networks necessary for successful entrepreneurship. This challenge is reflected in lower rates of financing and mentoring opportunities compared to their male counterparts, which also limits their chances of success in the entrepreneurial sphere (^{Laguía et al., 2019}).

^{Adom and Anambane (2020)} studied the role of culture and gender stereotypes in female entrepreneurship in Ghana and found that culture, through gender stereotypes, acts as a "push" motivator, driving women into entrepreneurship primarily out of necessity rather than opportunity. Furthermore, gender stereotypes confine women to low-value-added sectors and discourage them from venturing into unfamiliar, potentially more lucrative sectors. The psychological effects of these stereotypes can also demotivate female entrepreneurs, resulting in lower performance and reduced business growth.

These perspectives highlight the importance of considering gender stereotypes and structural inequalities in entrepreneurship research. Challenge these stereotypes and promote policies addressing women's barriers to entrepreneurship.

^{Li et al., (2020)} affirm that social norms drive attitudes toward entrepreneurship. ^{Arshad et al., (2021)} observed that entrepreneurship among women is more closely associated with motivation by community expectations and aspirations, while male entrepreneurship is deemed more appropriate, as men are viewed as autonomous, independent, and oriented toward work outside the home (Eagly et al., 2008).

Moreover, ^{Gupta et al., (2019)} found that gender role stereotypes significantly influence the perception of different forms of entrepreneurship. Using social role theory, they found that commercial and high-growth entrepreneurs are commonly perceived as possessing more masculine characteristics and high agency, while low-growth entrepreneurs tend to be viewed with more feminine characteristics and high commonality. Interestingly, social entrepreneurs are perceived as a combination of both gender stereotypes, though they are attributed to higher agency than commonality. These findings suggest that perceptions of entrepreneurship are deeply rooted in gender stereotypes, which can influence the entrepreneurial intentions of individuals of different genders.

^{Martiarena (2022)} expands on this discussion by showing how masculine stereotypes of entrepreneurs affect female entrepreneurs' growth expectations. Women who identify with feminine traits and attribute masculine characteristics to entrepreneurs expect their businesses to grow at a slower pace. Stereotype threat theory suggests that members of a negatively stereotyped social group may perceive a threat of being judged by those stereotypes, which reduces their self-efficacy and growth expectations. Additionally, the influence of stereotypes is particularly relevant in industries where the representation of female entrepreneurs is low, increasing gender salience and triggering stereotype threats.

Finally, ^{BarNir (2021)} shows that the experience of gender stereotypes is not only negatively associated with women's entrepreneurial aspirations but also interferes with the positive influence of self-efficacy and previous exposure to entrepreneurship on these aspirations. Furthermore, gender stereotypes affect the types of ventures women prefer to start, steering them away from growth-oriented entrepreneurship and towards communal entrepreneurship.

Since entrepreneurial intention refers to the decision a person makes regarding whether to become an entrepreneur (^{Liñan et al., 2011}) and based on stereotype threat theory (^{Steele, 1997)}, when individuals perceive a discrepancy between their characteristics and those associated with a stereotyped task, their intentions to undertake that task are reduced. Thisconcept can be applied to entrepreneurial intention. If, as discussed earlier, positive traits of entrepreneurs are associated with men and negative traits with women, women's entrepreneurial intentions will be affected by stereotype threat. This threat is only activated when the person feels vulnerable and identifies as a group member with negative characteristics. On the other hand, androgynous individuals are those who score high in both masculinity and femininity. The concept of psychological androgyny suggests that a person can be both compassionate and assertive, both expressive and instrumental, and both feminine and masculine, depending on the situation (^{Pérez-Quintana et al., 2017}).

Based on the literature review and the theoretical framework presented, the following hypotheses are proposed to guide the present study: • Hypothesis 1 (H1): Gender stereotypes associated with masculine characteristics are positively related to entrepreneurial intention. • Hypothesis 2 (H2): Men have higher entrepreneurial intentions compared to women due to the influence of gender stereotypes.

3.1. Demographic Characteristics

Regarding the demographic data of the sample, 57% of the total respondents identified as women, and the average age was around 20 years. Additionally, nearly 80% reported that they do not have or have not established their own business, and only about half indicated that they are involved in a family business.

To evaluate gender stereotypes in the context of entrepreneurship, we conducted a t-test (p < 0.01) to identify which gender stereotypes persist. The analysis classified items as masculine, feminine, androgynous (equally desirable for both genders), or undifferentiated (no consensus on gender attributes). Table 2 provides a summary of these classifications.

The results obtained showed that thirteen items were associated with the masculine gender, only two with the feminine, one was considered androgynous, and fifteen were classified as undifferentiated. These findings indicate a predominant perception that behaviors associated with entrepreneurship are predominantly masculine, linked to instrumental-agentic traits such as decision-making, leadership ability, and dominance. In contrast, only a few items were associated with traditionally feminine characteristics, such as being discreet and submissive.

It is essential to highlight that optimism was the only item not associated with masculine or feminine traits, suggesting that this quality is perceived as gender neutral. Additionally, it is significant that traits directly related to entrepreneurship, such as creativity and innovation, were classified as undifferentiated. This result suggests that, while the importance of these attributes in the entrepreneurial field is recognized, they are not considered inherently masculine or feminine, which opens the door to a more inclusive perception of entrepreneurship.

3.2. Entrepreneurial intention

The variable of entrepreneurial intention was analyzed using two complementary approaches. First, the means and standard deviations of each of the six items that make up this variable were calculated, allowing us to observe significant differences between men and women. The results indicate that men tend to have a higher average entrepreneurial intention than women, which may be influenced by the previously discussed gender stereotypes that associate entrepreneurship with masculine characteristics. These findings validate Hypothesis 2 (H2), which states that men have higher entrepreneurial intentions. This difference may be influenced by gender stereotypes that link entrepreneurship with masculine traits such as leadership and competitiveness.

The analysis of means and standard deviations shows that men have higher entrepreneurial intentions than women (M_men = 5.59, SD = 1.45; M_women = 5.16, SD = 1.46). The difference is statistically significant (t(397) = 3.45, p < 0.01), which validates H2, confirming that men have higher entrepreneurial intentions. This difference may be influenced by gender stereotypes that associate entrepreneurship with masculine characteristics.

Second, a dimensional reduction was carried out through a KMO factor analysis with varimax rotation. This method allowed us to identify the underlying factors and group-related items, providing a clearer view of the dimensions that compose entrepreneurial intention. Table 3 presents the detailed results of these analyses.

Subsequently, after identifying the items corresponding to the masculine and feminine variables, a factor analysis using dimensional reduction was performed to create two variables: Masculinity and Femininity. This procedure aimed to establish a correlation between these two variables and Entrepreneurial Intention. The only androgynous item was excluded from this analysis as it was insignificant.

The principal components analysis identified three main components. The first component explained a significant proportion of the total variance, grouping ten items with factor loadings higher than 0.5. These items are related to desirable qualities in an entrepreneur, such as being self-confident, willing to take risks, and having leadership ability.

The remaining three items ("Self-sufficient," "Be unpredictable," and "Be dominant, aggressive") showed high factor loadings in a third component, suggesting that they represent a distinct dimension not aligned with the primary set of items. Additionally, an internal consistency analysis revealed strong cohesion among the items in the first component, while the three items from the third component exhibited different internal consistency.

Conceptually, these three items may capture more specific or extreme characteristics that are not essential to the model's main structure. Therefore, excluding these three items from the primary analysis was decided to maintain the model's coherence and parsimony without losing significant information.

As shown in Table 5, the correlation analysis revealed significant relationships between entrepreneurial intention, Femininity, and Masculinity. The correlation analysis revealed a significant negative correlation (-0.202, p < 0.01) between entrepreneurial intention and Femininity, suggesting that as Femininity increases, entrepreneurial intention tends to decrease. This indicates that characteristics associated with Femininity may act as a limiting factor for entrepreneurial intention.

In contrast, entrepreneurial intention showed a significant positive correlation (0.386, p < 0.01) with Masculinity, which includes desirable qualities in an entrepreneur, such as being self-confident, willing to take risks, and having leadership ability. This positive relationship indicates that individuals with high scores in these Masculinity traits tend to have a higher intention to engage in entrepreneurship. This result supports Hypothesis 1 (H1), which states that masculine traits, such as decision-making, leadership ability, and dominance, are positively related to entrepreneurial intention. This finding is consistent with previous studies suggesting that traditionally masculine characteristics are highly valued in the entrepreneurial context (^{Gupta et al., 2019}; ^{Laguía et al., 2019}).

Additionally, Femininity showed a strong negative correlation (-0.532, p < 0.01) with Masculinity. This implies that characteristics associated with Femininity are at odds with the qualities captured by Masculinity, reinforcing the idea that these traits may conflict with those typically associated with entrepreneurship.